The History of Himachal Pradesh: A Detailed Account

The history of Himachal Pradesh is a complex tapestry woven with the threads of ancient tribes, powerful empires, local chieftains, and colonial powers. Due to a lack of consistent and accurate source material for long periods, much of its early history remained in obscurity. The region, as the state we know today, was often non-existent, comprising territories under local rulers like Rajas, Ranas, and Thakurs, frequently impacted by natural calamities and foreign invasions.

Sources of History

The historical account of Himachal Pradesh is reconstructed from two primary types of sources:

  • Archaeological Sources: These include stone tools, coins, monuments, inscriptions, and sculptures. Discoveries have been made in areas like Guler, Dhaliara, Nadaun, Suketi, Rohru, Hatkoti, and Nirmand. Ancient coins from tribal kingdoms like Trigarta, Audumbara, Kuluta, and Kuninda, dating from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D., have been significant. Inscriptions in various scripts like Sharda, Kharosthi, Brahmi, Tankri, Kutila, Nagari, Sankha, Bhotia (Tibetan), and Sidhamatrika have also provided valuable information.
  • Literary Sources: These encompass Sanskrit works (Vedas, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’, Kalidasa’s ‘Raghuvansham’), Persian chronicles (like ‘Tarikh-i-Yamini’, ‘Tarikh-i-Farishta’), Khalsa literature (Guru Granth Sahib, Bachitra Natak), and travelogues from Greek, Chinese (like Hiuen Tsang), and European travelers. Genealogical rolls (Vamshavalis) maintained by Rajgurus or Kul Purohits also offer insights. In 2011, a 600-year-old manuscript on the Ayurvedic system of medicine, written in the Bhoti language, was found in Spiti Valley.

Ancient Inhabitants and Early Kingdoms (Prehistoric – c. 2nd Century A.D.)

  • Prehistoric Era: Evidence suggests the presence of prehistoric man in the Himalayan region around 10 million years ago, particularly in the foothills traversed by the Beas, Sirsa-Satluj, and Markanda valleys. The earliest inhabitants are believed to be Kolarian people (represented today by Koli, Hali, Doms, Chanals, etc.), who were pushed into the forests and valleys by the spread of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000 B.C. – 1500 B.C.). The Rig Veda mentions tribes like ‘Dasas’, ‘Nishads’, and ‘Dasyus’. The Kolis (Mundas) were perhaps the earliest migrants, with a powerful king named Shambra who had 99 forts between the Yamuna and Beas rivers.
  • Arrival of Other Races: Around the 3rd millennium B.C., Mongoloid people (‘Bhotas’ and ‘Kiratas’) occupied the sub-Himalayan region and are now settled in the highest regions of Himachal Pradesh. The Aryans or ‘Khasas’ entered from the North (via Kashmir) and settled in the mid-mountains from Kashmir to Nepal, leaving a deep impact.
  • Prominent Ancient Tribes and Republics:
  • Audumbaras: Flourished around the 2nd century B.C. Their territory was strategically located on the trade route from Takshashila to the Gangetic valley, linking the mountains and plains. Pathankot was a key junction. They had a republican system with an elected King (Raja or Rana) and issued coins in copper and silver, inscribed in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, often bearing the word ‘Mahadevsa’ (possibly for Lord Shiva or a regal title). They were Shaivites. Their material prosperity is testified by the abundance of their coins.
  • Trigarta (Kangra): Considered the oldest princely state in Himachal Pradesh, founded by Susharma Chandra, who aided the Kauravas in the Mahabharata war. Its original seat was possibly Multan, and Nagarkot fort was built by him. The name Trigarta denotes the region drained by the Ravi, Beas, and Satluj rivers. Panini referred to it as a confederation of six states (‘Trigarta Shashthas’). A coin bearing the legend ‘Trakata Janapadasa’ in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts indicates its existence as an independent republic in the 2nd century B.C.
  • Kuluta (Kullu): Located in the upper Beas valley, mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Vishnu Purana. Its ancient capital was Naggar. The oldest historical record is a coin from around 100 A.D. bearing the name ‘Virayasasya rajna Kulutasya’. Kullu tradition states its founder was Bihangmani Pal from Prayag.
  • Kunindas (or Kulindas): Mentioned in the Mahabharata (conquered by Arjuna) and Puranas. They occupied the territory between the Beas, Satluj, and Yamuna rivers (Sirmaur and Shimla hills, and between Ambala and Saharanpur in the plains). They are identified with the modern Kanets or Kunets. They issued silver and copper coins, with legends in Prakrit (Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts). Their coins fall into two groups: one from the end of the 1st century B.C. (bearing the name Amoghabhuti) and another from the end of the 2nd century A.D. or early 3rd century A.D. (bearing a figure of Shiva). They had a republican form of government.

Rule of Major Empires and Foreign Invasions (c. 3rd Century B.C. – 10th Century A.D.)

  • Mauryan Empire (c. 324 B.C. – 187 B.C.):
    • After Alexander’s departure (around 327 B.C.), Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya and an alliance with the Himalayan chief Parvataka (possibly the Trigarta chief), ascended the throne of Magadha in 324 B.C. The alliance provided Chandragupta with an army including Kiratas and Khashas from the Himachal hills.
    • Chandragupta attempted to penetrate the inner hills but was opposed by a coalition of five kings, including Chitravarma of Kuluta.
    • Ashoka, Chandragupta’s grandson, extended his influence into the Himalayan region and promoted Buddhism. He sent Buddhist monks, headed by Majjhima, to the Himalayan countries. Ashoka is said to have built many stupas in the region, including one in the Kullu valley, and erected rock edicts, such as the one at Kalsi (Uttarakhand, formerly part of Sirmaur).
  • Post-Mauryan Period and Rise of Republics (c. 187 B.C. – 20 A.D.):
    • After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, Himalayan hill republics declared independence. The Sungas (187-75 B.C.) could not control them. These republics issued their own coins from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D., signifying their independence.
  • Kushana Empire (c. 20 A.D. – 225 A.D.):
    • The Kushanas established an extensive empire from Central Asia to Mathura and Banaras. Kanishka was their greatest ruler and a staunch Buddhist. Finds of Kushana coins (Wema Kadphises, Kanishka, Vasudeva) in places like Kalka-Kasauli Road and Kanihara (Kangra) indicate their influence.
    • The tribal republics of Audumbara, Trigarta, Kuluta, and Kulinda likely came under Kushana domination but were allowed to issue their own coins, suggesting a degree of autonomy.
    • The Fourth Buddhist Council during Kanishka’s reign is believed by some to have been held at the ‘Kuvana monastery’ in Jalandhara (capital of Trigarta).
    • By the end of the 2nd century A.D., Kushana power declined, and local republics like the Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, and Kulindas grew powerful and eventually pushed the Kushanas beyond the Satluj.
  • Gupta Empire (c. 4th Century A.D. – 6th Century A.D.):
    • The Gupta empire was founded by Sri Gupta, with Pataliputra as its capital. Samudragupta (known as the “Napoleon of India”) was its greatest king. His Allahabad pillar inscription details his conquests.
    • Northern kingdoms were annexed, while southern kings were restored as tributaries. Frontier states and tribes, including those in the Shivalik region like the Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, and Madrakas (Kartripura), acknowledged Gupta overlordship and paid tribute but enjoyed internal autonomy.
    • The story of Ram Gupta, Dhruva Devi, and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) and his defeat of a Saka king is mentioned in Vishakhadatta’s ‘Devichandraguptam’. Chandragupta II continued conquests, subduing tribal states and foreign lords like the Kushanas and Sakas.
    • By the 4th century A.D., the Audumbaras and Kunindas had likely disappeared or weakened. The Kuninda republic fragmented into smaller kingdoms like Brahampura, Govisana, and Kartipur. New powers like Bushahr and Sirmaur emerged. Trigarta seems to have expanded its territory.
    • The hill states, which previously had republican systems, adopted monarchical (hereditary) systems, following the Guptas.
  • Huna Invasions (c. 5th – 6th Century A.D.):
    • In the mid-5th century A.D., the Hunas, a Central Asian tribe, invaded Northwest India, including Punjab. Toramana and his son Mihiragula were notable Huna leaders. Mihiragula was eventually defeated. Some Hunas settled in the hills, and the Gujjars and Gaddis of the Shivalik and mid-Himalayan regions are sometimes identified with these tribesmen.
  • Rise of Local Chiefs – Ranas and Thakurs (Post-Gupta Period):
    • The period of instability after the Gupta decline and before Harsha’s rise saw the emergence of numerous local chiefs known as ‘Rajas’, ‘Ranas’, and ‘Thakurs’ in the cis-Himalayan region between the Ravi and Yamuna. They claimed Kshatriya status.
    • The ‘Apthakurai’ or ‘Ranahun’ Age was characterized by small political units ruled by these chieftains. Ranas are identified with the old ‘Rajanakas’ (court elites). Thakurs meant ‘lord’. These petty states were constantly at war, leading to frequent boundary changes. This internal conflict eventually paved the way for the rise of larger Rajput principalities.
  • Harshavardhana’s Era (606 A.D. – 647 A.D.):
    • Harshavardhana of Kanauj established a vast empire in North India.
    • The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign (630-644 A.D.). In 634 A.D., he visited Jalandhara (capital of Jalandhara-Trigarta) and stayed as a guest of Raja Utitas (identified with Adima of Vamshavali) for four months. He described the kingdom as extensive.
    • Hiuen Tsang then visited Kuluta (Kullu), describing its geography, people, and religious practices (Buddhism and Deva temples). He also visited Surughna (Sirmaur).
    • During Harsha’s period, there was peace in the Himalayan hills, and people followed Buddhism and Brahmanism.
  • Post-Harsha Period and Tripartite Struggle (7th – 10th Century A.D.):
    • Harsha’s death in 647 A.D. led to confusion until the reign of Yashovarman of Kanauj (c. 700-740 A.D.). Yashovarman was defeated by Lalitaditya of Kashmir (c. 724-760 A.D.). Trigarta, Brahampura (Chamba), and other western hill states came under Yashovarman’s influence and later Kashmir’s.
    • Shankaravarman of Kashmir (883-903 A.D.) led an expedition against Gurjara, and the Trigarta chief Prithvi Chandra, an ally of Gurjara, fled.
    • A triangular contest for Kanauj ensued between the Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Pratiharas. The Gurjara-Pratiharas emerged victorious. Their influence extended up to Pehoa (Karnal district).
    • The decline of the Pratihara empire in the 10th century led to the rise of many feudatories. Rajput rulers, facing pressure in the plains, migrated to the Himalayan valleys and founded new states in the 10th and 11th centuries.
    • The Nirmand copper plate (Kullu district), possibly from the 7th century A.D., mentions Mahasamanta Maharaja Varmasena, his son Ravisen, and grandson Samudrasena, who were likely feudatories of Kullu or Jalandhara.

Medieval Period: Turkic, Afghan, and Mughal Invasions (10th Century – 18th Century)

  • Early Turkic Invasions and Mahmud of Ghazni (Late 10th – Early 11th Century):
    • The Turks, more aggressive than the Arabs, rose to power in Central Asia.
    • Alaptgin, a Turkish adventurer, established himself in Ghazni (Afghanistan) around 962 A.D.
    • Subuktgin succeeded Alaptgin in 977 A.D. and expanded the Ghaznavid kingdom. He came into conflict with Raja Jai Pal of the Shahi Dynasty, whose kingdom extended from Sarhind to Lamghan and Kashmir to Multan. Subuktgin defeated Jai Pal in 986-87 A.D. and again after Jai Pal broke a peace treaty. Peshawar came under Subuktgin’s control.
    • Mahmud of Ghazni succeeded his father Subuktgin in 997 A.D. In his fourth expedition to India (1009 A.D.), Mahmud defeated a large Hindu army and besieged Nagarkot (Kangra). This was likely the first Hill State to fall to Muslim invasion. He plundered the ancient temple of Nagarkot and carried away immense wealth, believed to be the royal treasury of the Hindu Shahis of Kabul. The fort was garrisoned by Mahmud’s troops.
    • The Nagarkot fort remained under Ghaznavid possession until 1043 A.D. when the Tomar chief of Delhi, Mahipal, formed a confederacy and recaptured it after a four-month siege.
    • There are references to the fort being recaptured by Abdul Rashid (son of Sultan Mahmud) in 1051-52 A.D. but recovered by Katoch rulers by 1060 A.D. It then remained with the Katochs for nearly 300 years.
  • Delhi Sultanate and Kangra (13th – 14th Century):
    • The Slave (1206-1290 A.D.) and Khilji (1290-1320 A.D.) dynasties of Delhi did not pay significant attention to the Punjab Hill States.
    • Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1413 A.D.):
      • Founded by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
      • Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.) is said to have invaded and captured Kangra fort in 1337 A.D., though some historians dispute this or suggest it was a short incursion.
      • Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 A.D.) besieged Kangra fort in 1365 A.D. to punish Raja Rup Chand of Kangra for plundering raids on the plains. After a six-month siege, Rup Chand surrendered. Firoz Shah is said to have ordered the translation of 1,300 Hindu books from the temple library into Persian (titled ‘Dalayil-i-Firoz Shahi’). Nagarkot was reportedly renamed ‘Mohammedabad’. However, accounts suggest the fort was not permanently garrisoned by Firoz Shah.
      • During Sangara Chand’s reign (successor to Rup Chand), Firoz Shah’s eldest son Nasir-ud-Din took shelter in Nagarkot after being driven from power, staying until 1389 A.D.
    • Timur’s Invasion (1398-99 A.D.):
      • The Mongol ruler Timur (Tamerlane) invaded India, giving a death blow to the Delhi Sultanate.
      • On his return journey in 1399 A.D., Timur invaded the Shivalik states, moving from near Haridwar along the foothills to Jammu. He stormed forts in the Kiarda-dun valley (Sirmaur) and reached Nurpur (then Dhameri). He intended to subdue Nagarkot but was prevented by the difficult terrain. Alam Chand, Raja of Hindur (Nalagarh), offered provisions to Timur. Raja Megh Chand was the ruler of Kangra at this time.
  • Mughal Era and Kangra (16th – 18th Century):
    • Babur (1526-1530 A.D.): Founder of the Mughal dynasty. By 1525 A.D., Babur had captured Malot fort (near Kangra) from Daulat Khan Lodi. He does not seem to have encountered the Raja of Kangra directly.
    • Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545 A.D.): Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan, supplanted Humayun. He reportedly sent his general Khawas Khan to subdue the Kangra hills, placing them under Hamid Khan Kakar, though Kangra fort itself is believed to have remained unconquered until Jahangir. Sikandar Shah Sur, Sher Shah’s nephew, retreated to the Shivalik hills around Dhameri (Nurpur) and Kangra after being defeated by the Mughals.
    • Akbar (1556-1605 A.D.):
      • Akbar was the first Mughal ruler to plan the conquest of Kangra fort. In 1557 A.D., while pursuing Sikandar Shah Sur who had taken refuge in Mankot fort (built by Salim Shah Sur), Akbar’s forces were in the region. Mankot surrendered after an eight-month siege.
      • Akbar initiated the practice of keeping hostages from Hill States at the Mughal court, usually a son or relative of the ruling chief.
      • Raja Jai Chand of Kangra incurred Akbar’s suspicion and was arrested by Raja Ram Chand of Guler. His son, Bidhi Chand, revolted, assisted by Raja Gopi Chand of Jaswan.
      • In 1572 A.D., Akbar sent an army under Khan Jahan Hussain Quli Khan (Viceroy of Punjab) to subdue Nagarkot, which had been granted as a jagir to Raja Birbal. The Mughal army passed Dhameri (Nurpur), whose ruler Takht Mal (relative of Jai Chand) offered allegiance. They captured Kotla fort (originally Guler’s, then occupied by Kangra) and handed it back to Guler.
      • The siege of Kangra fort was progressing when news of a Mirza revolt in Punjab forced Khan Jahan to negotiate a settlement and withdraw. During this expedition, the Bhawan temple (Mahamai temple) near Nagarkot was reportedly captured and Brahmins killed.
      • Akbar later deputed Todar Mal to create an imperial demesne by confiscating territory from hill states, including 66 villages from Kangra and Rihlu from Chamba.
      • In 1588-89 A.D., Hill Chiefs led by Bidhi Chand of Kangra revolted. Zain Khan Koka was sent to suppress them. The chiefs surrendered and accompanied him to court. Bidhi Chand had to leave his son Trilok Chand as a hostage.
      • Another revolt by hill chiefs around 1594-95 A.D. was suppressed by Sheikh Farid (Murtaza Khan).
    • Jahangir (1605-1627 A.D.):
      • Jahangir was determined to capture Kangra fort. In 1615 A.D., Sheikh Farid Murtaza Khan (Governor of Punjab) was sent, assisted by Raja Suraj Mal of Nurpur. Differences between Murtaza Khan and Suraj Mal, and Murtaza Khan’s subsequent death, led to the failure of this attempt.
      • In 1617 A.D., another expedition was sent under Suraj Mal of Nurpur and Shah Quli Khan Muhammad Taqi. Suraj Mal quarreled with Muhammad Taqi (who was recalled) and then revolted himself, ravaging the plains. Rai Raiyan Sunder Das was sent to suppress him. Suraj Mal fled to Mankot, Nurpur, and then Taragarh fort (Chamba), where he died in 1619 A.D.
      • Capture of Kangra Fort (November 1620 A.D.): Suraj Mal’s younger brother, Jagat Singh, joined the Mughal forces. After a siege lasting one year, two months, the Kangra fort garrison, led by Hari Chand (the Katoch chief, then 12 years old) and his uncle, surrendered to Rai Raiyan Bikramjit. This was the first time the fort was garrisoned by the Mughals. Nawab Ali Khan became the first Mughal Qiladar (Governor) of the fort. The Katoch royal family was granted the district of Rajgir as jagir.
      • Jahangir visited Kangra in person in January 1622 A.D. He was so fascinated by the valley’s beauty that he ordered a palace to be built, but this was not completed.
    • Shah Jahan (1628-1658 A.D.): Nawab Asad Ullah Khan and Koch Quli Khan served as Qiladars of Kangra fort. Koch Quli Khan held it for 17 years. In Chamba, Raja Jagat Singh of Nurpur ruled for two decades after the treacherous murder of Raja Janardhan of Chamba in 1623 A.D. Jagat Singh later revolted against Shah Jahan in 1641 A.D. but was suppressed by Murad Baksh. Chamba was restored to Prithvi Singh (Janardhan’s son), who developed good relations with the Mughals.
    • Aurangzeb (1658-1707 A.D.): Sayyid Hussain Khan, Hasan Abdullah Khan Pathan, and Nawab Sayyid Khalil Ullah Khan were Mughal Qiladars of Kangra. Raja Chatar Singh of Chamba, contemporary of Aurangzeb, refused to demolish Hindu temples and, with other hill chiefs, defeated a Mughal force led by Mirza Obed Beg. Raja Bhim Chand of Kahlur (Bilaspur) also rose against Mughal intolerance and allied with Guru Gobind Singh. The last Mughal Qiladar of Kangra fort was Nawab Saif Ali Khan, appointed in 1740 A.D. during Muhammad Shah’s reign. By this time, Mughal authority was crumbling.
    • Mughal Relations with Sirmaur: Rajas from Dharam Prakash (1538-70 A.D.) to Budhi Prakash (1605-1615 A.D.) were loyal to Akbar and Jahangir. Raja Mandhata Prakash assisted Shah Jahan in expeditions against Garhwal chiefs.

Rise of Sikh Power and British Ascendancy (18th – 19th Century)

  • Sikh Gurus and Hill States:
    • Guru Nanak Dev, the first Sikh Guru, travelled to places like Kangra, Jwalamukhi, Kullu, and Sirmaur.
    • Guru Arjan Dev sent Bhai Kaliana to collect funds from hill states for Harmandir Sahib.
    • Guru Hargobind travelled extensively and built Kiratpur on land gifted by the Raja of Bilaspur.
    • Guru Teg Bahadur purchased land in Makhowal (Kahlur) and established Anandpur Sahib.
    • Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru, had conflicts with hill Rajas, notably Raja Bhim Chand of Kahlur, over issues like a white elephant and support for Mughal authority. The Battle of Bhangani (1686 A.D.) near Paonta Sahib saw Guru Gobind Singh victorious against an alliance of hill Rajas; Raja Hari Chand of Hindur was killed.
    • Guru Gobind Singh later allied with Bhim Chand against Mughal tribute demands. In a battle at Nadaun, Alif Khan (Mughal commander) was defeated.
    • Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa in 1699 A.D. at Anandpur, which caused panic among hill rulers. Subsequent conflicts with Mughals and allied hill Rajas led to the evacuation of Anandpur in 1704 A.D. Guru Gobind Singh passed away in 1708 A.D.
  • Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Hill States (Early 19th Century):
    • After the decline of Mughal power, Sikh Misls rose. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia made Kangra, Nurpur, and Chamba tributaries. In 1775, Jai Singh Kanheya defeated Jassa Singh Ramgarhia and captured the Kangra group of states.
    • The Kangra fort, however, remained under Mughal governor Saif Ali Khan. In 1782, Sansar Chand II of Kangra, with Jai Singh Kanheya’s help, besieged the fort. After Saif Ali Khan’s death in 1783, the fort fell to the Sikhs (Jai Singh Kanheya). Four years later, in 1787, Sansar Chand, aided by other hill leaders, forced Jai Singh Kanheya to surrender the fort to him.
    • With Kangra fort, Sansar Chand became powerful and subdued Guler, Siba, Jaswan, Datarpur, Kahlur, and Mandi. This tyranny led to a confederation of hill states against him.
    • Maharaja Ranjit Singh (born 1780, became chief of Sukerchakia Misl in 1792) rose to prominence.
  • Gurkha Invasions and Anglo-Gurkha War (Early 19th Century):
    • In the late 18th century, Gurkhas of Nepal aimed to establish a kingdom from Nepal to Kashmir, extending their dominion to the Satluj by the end of the century, covering Kumaon, Garhwal, Sirmaur, and Shimla Hill States.
    • In 1804 A.D., at the invitation of Raja Karam Parkash of Sirmaur (who was facing internal rebellion), Gurkha General Amar Singh Thapa intervened. However, after quelling the rebellion, Thapa established his own government in Sirmaur.
    • The coalition of hill states, resentful of Sansar Chand’s actions, invited Amar Singh Thapa in 1804 A.D.
    • In 1806 A.D., the Gurkhas, joined by contingents from hill states, defeated Sansar Chand at Mahal Morian (Hamirpur). Sansar Chand took refuge in Kangra fort, which the Gurkhas besieged for four years, devastating the country.
    • Desperate, Sansar Chand sought help from Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Treaty of Jwalamukhi (20th July 1809) was signed, ceding Kangra fort and the Kangra group of states to Ranjit Singh in return for expelling the Gurkhas. Desa Singh Majithia was appointed Nazim (Governor) of the fort and Kangra hills. Sansar Chand retired to Tira Sujanpur.
    • After retreating from Kangra in 1809, Amar Singh Thapa attacked Hindur but was checked by the advance of British troops to Ludhiana. He established himself at Arki (Baghal). His son Ranzor Singh attacked Sirmaur, defeating Karam Prakash. Nahan and Jythak became important Gurkha posts.
    • By 1810, Gurkhas had conquered Hindur, Jubbal, and parts of Balsan. The Raja of Bushahr sent forces against them but was eventually forced to pay tribute. By 1813, the entire territory between the Yamuna and Satluj was under Gurkha control.
    • Anglo-Gurkha War (1814-1816): British mercantile interests and Gurkha expansionism led to war, declared on November 1, 1814. The British promised reinstatement to hill chiefs in return for aid.
      • Four British divisions operated. Major General David Ochterlony and Major General Rollo Gillespie led main columns.
      • Gillespie marched to Dehra Dun; Gurkha commander Bala Bhadra Thapa fortified Kalinga (Nalapani). After fierce fighting, Gillespie was killed, but Nalapani eventually fell.
      • Ochterlony entered the foothills from Ropar, captured Nalagarh and Taragarh. Amar Singh Thapa concentrated his forces at Malaon. With help from Hindur and Kahlur Rajas, Ochterlony defeated the Gurkhas. Ramgarh fort surrendered. Bhakti Thapa, a brave Gurkha officer, died at Malaon.
      • Following the fall of Kumaon, Amar Singh Thapa surrendered with honor.
      • Treaty of Sugauli (signed Dec 2, 1815, ratified March 4, 1816): Between the East India Company and the King of Nepal. Nepal ceded about one-third of its territory, including areas won in the preceding 25 years (Sikkim, Kumaon, Garhwal, much of Terai). A British representative was established in Kathmandu. The hill territory from river Kali to Satluj came under British sovereignty.
  • British Rule and Princely States (Post-1815):
    • After the Anglo-Gurkha war, all Shimla Hill States came under British sovereignty. Sanads (charters) were granted to rulers of Bilaspur, Baghal, Kuthar, Baghat, Bhajji, Dhami, Mahlog, Beja, Keonthal, Sirmaur, Balsan, Nalagarh, Jubbal, etc., between 1815 and 1819, establishing their territories and obligations (allowing passage for merchants, providing begar, constructing roads, paying Nazarana).
    • First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846): Following Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, the Sikh Empire became disordered. The Khalsa army crossed the Satluj, invading British territory.
      • Key battles included Ferozeshah (Dec 1845, bloody British victory), Aliwal (Jan 28, 1846, decisive British victory under Sir Harry Smith), and Sobraon (Feb 10, 1846, complete Sikh defeat).
      • Treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846): Sikhs ceded Jalandhar Doab (between Satluj and Beas) and territories south of Satluj to the British. An indemnity was imposed, and Kashmir was sold to Gulab Singh of Jammu. A British Resident was established in Lahore.
      • As a result, the hill states of Kangra, Nurpur, Guler, Jaswan, Datarpur, Suket, Mandi, Kullu, and Lahaul-Spiti came under direct British control. This was a disappointment to these chiefs who had hoped for restoration of their pre-Sikh status.
    • Second Anglo-Sikh War and Aftermath: Disappointed Kangra Hill Chiefs supported the Sikhs in the next Anglo-Sikh war, which proved suicidal as the revolt was suppressed and guilty chiefs were banished. The period 1846-1857 saw the expansion of British control in Himachal hills.
    • Revolt of 1857: Rajas of Nalagarh (Ram Singh), Suket (Ugar Sen), and Chamba (Sri Singh) expressed loyalty to the British and were rewarded. The revolt marked the end of East India Company’s rule.
    • Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (November 1, 1858): Assured Hill Chiefs that the Imperial Crown would uphold treaties and Sanads and had no desire for further territorial expansion.

Chamber of Princes (Narendra Mandal): Formed on February 8, 1921, as a consultative body. Chamba, Mandi, Suket, and Sirmaur became members by virtue of their 11-gun salute status. Shimla Hill States were represented by six rulers initially, with Raja Bhagat Chand of Jubbal and later Raja of Baghat representing them. Hill rulers generally remained faithful to the British

History of Himachal Pradesh: A Chronological Overview

Timeline/PeriodKey Events/DevelopmentsNotable Figures/Groups InvolvedKey Locations/Regions Involved
Prehistoric Era (c. 10 million years ago – 3000 B.C.)– Evidence suggests human presence in Himachal foothills.  – Migration and cross-migration of people from Indian plains and Central Asia.  – Indus Valley Civilization flourished (c. 3000 B.C. – 1500 B.C.), covering areas up to the Shivalik hills in the North.  – Earliest inhabitants believed to be Kolarian people (ancestors of Koli, Hali, Doms, Chanals etc.).  – Rig Veda mentions tribes like ‘Dasas’, ‘Nishads’, and ‘Dasyus’.  – Kolis (Mundas) were possibly the earliest migrants; their powerful king Shambra had 99 forts between the Yamuna and Beas rivers.Koli, Hali, Doms, Chanals, Dasas, Nishads, Dasyus, King ShambraHimalayan foothills, Beas valley, Sirsa-Satluj valleys, Markanda valley, Shivalik hills, Kinnaur, Lahaul-Spiti
c. 3rd Millennium B.C. onwards– Mongoloid people (‘Bhotas’ and ‘Kiratas’) occupied the sub-Himalayan region.  – Aryans or ‘Khasas’ entered from the North (via Kashmir) and settled in the mid-mountains from Kashmir to Nepal.Bhotas, Kiratas, Aryans (Khasas)Sub-Himalayan region, Mid-mountains from Kashmir to Nepal
Ancient Tribal Republics (c. 2nd Century B.C. – 2nd Century A.D.)– Rise of tribal republics.  – Audumbaras: Located on trade route from Takshashila to Gangetic valley. Republican system with elected King (Raja/Rana). Issued copper and silver coins (Brahmi & Kharosthi scripts). Shaivite faith. Materially prosperous.  – Trigarta (Kangra): Oldest princely state, founded by Susharma Chandra. Region drained by Ravi, Beas, Satluj. Panini called it ‘Trigarta Shashthas’ (confederation of six states). Coin evidence from 2nd century B.C..  – Kuluta (Kullu): Upper Beas valley. Ancient capital at Naggar. Oldest coin record around 100 A.D. (King Virayasa). Founder according to tradition: Bihangmani Pal.  – Kunindas (Kulindas): Lived between Beas, Satluj, and Yamuna rivers. Identified with modern Kanets/Kunets. Issued silver and copper coins (Prakrit, Brahmi, Kharosthi scripts). Republican government with ‘Rajas’ and a ‘Maharaja’. ‘Amoghabhuti’ is likely an official title.Audumbaras, Trigarta, Kulutas, Kunindas, Susharma Chandra, King Virayasa, Bihangmani Pal, AmoghabhutiPathankot, Kangra (Nagarkot), Kullu valley (Naggar), Sirmaur hills, Shimla hills
Mauryan Empire (c. 324 B.C. – 187 B.C.)– Chandragupta Maurya, with Chanakya, allied with Himalayan chief Parvataka (possibly Trigarta chief).  – Army included Kiratas and Khashas from Himachal hills.  – Chandragupta opposed by a coalition including Chitravarma of Kuluta.  – Ashoka extended influence, promoted Buddhism. Sent Buddhist missions (headed by Majjhima). Built stupas (e.g., Kullu valley) and rock edicts (e.g., Kalsi).Chandragupta Maurya, Chanakya, Parvataka, Chitravarma of Kuluta, Ashoka, MajjhimaMagadha, Trigarta (Jalandhara), Kullu, Kalsi
Post-Mauryan & Kushana Period (c. 187 B.C. – 225 A.D.)– Himalayan hill republics declared independence after Mauryan decline.  – Kushanas established a vast empire; Kanishka was a key ruler and Buddhist patron. Kushana coins found in Kalka-Kasauli Road and Kanihara (Kangra).  – Tribal republics (Audumbara, Trigarta, Kuluta, Kulinda) likely under Kushana domination but retained autonomy to issue coins.  – Fourth Buddhist Council possibly at Jalandhara.  – Kushana power declined by end of 2nd century A.D.; local republics grew powerful and pushed Kushanas beyond Satluj.Sungas, Kushans (Kanishka, Wema Kadphises, Vasudeva), Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kulutas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, ArjunayanasJalandhara, Kalka-Kasauli, Kanihara (Kangra)
Gupta Empire (c. 4th Century – 6th Century A.D.)– Founded by Sri Gupta. Samudragupta’s conquests detailed in the Allahabad pillar inscription.  – Northern kingdoms annexed, southern kings became tributaries. Frontier states including Shivalik republics acknowledged Gupta overlordship.  – Chandragupta II continued expansion.  – By the 4th century A.D., Audumbaras and Kunindas largely disappeared or fragmented. New powers like Bushahr and Sirmaur emerged.  – Hill states adopted monarchical systems.Guptas (Sri Gupta, Samudragupta, Ram Gupta, Chandragupta II), Audumbaras, Kunindas, Trigarta, Madrakas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Bushahr, SirmaurPataliputra, Shivalik region, Brahampura, Govisana, Kartipur
Huna Invasions (c. 5th – 6th Century A.D.)– Hunas from Central Asia invaded Northwest India, including Punjab.  – Some Hunas settled in the hills; Gujjars and Gaddis sometimes identified with them.Hunas (Toramana, Mihiragula), Gujjars, GaddisNorthwest India, Punjab, Shivalik hills, mid-Himalayan region
Rise of Local Chiefs (Post-Gupta Period)– Instability led to the emergence of local chiefs: Rajas, Ranas, and Thakurs in cis-Himalayan region.  – ‘Apthakurai’ or ‘Ranahun’ Age: region parcelled into tiny political units.  – Ranas identified with ‘Rajanakas’ (court elites). Thakurs meant ‘lord’.  – Constant warfare and shifting boundaries. Paved way for Rajput principalities.Rajas, Ranas, ThakursCis-Himalayan region (between Ravi and Yamuna)
Harshavardhana’s Era (606 A.D. – 647 A.D.)– Harshavardhana established an empire in North India.  – Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited Jalandhara (634 A.D.), stayed with Raja Utitas. Described Jalandhara kingdom as extensive.  – Hiuen Tsang visited Kuluta (Kullu) and Surughna (Sirmaur).  – Period of peace in Himalayan hills; Buddhism and Brahmanism coexisted.Harshavardhana, Hiuen Tsang, Raja Utitas (Adima)Kanauj, Jalandhara, Kullu, Sirmaur
Post-Harsha & Regional Powers (7th – 10th Century A.D.)– Yashovarman of Kanauj (c. 700-740 A.D.) defeated by Lalitaditya of Kashmir (c. 724-760 A.D.).  – Trigarta, Brahampura (Chamba) under Yashovarman’s, then Kashmir’s influence.  – Shankaravarman of Kashmir (883-903 A.D.) defeated Trigarta chief Prithvi Chandra.  – Triangular contest for Kanauj: Rashtrakutas, Palas, Pratiharas. Gurjara-Pratiharas won.  – Decline of Pratiharas (10th century) led to Rajput migration to Himalayan valleys, founding new states.  – Nirmand copper plate (Kullu, ?7th cent. AD) mentions Mahasamanta Dharmasena & successors, likely feudatories.Yashovarman, Lalitaditya, Shankaravarman, Prithvi Chandra, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, Varmasena dynasty (Nirmand)Kanauj, Kashmir, Trigarta, Brahampura (Chamba), Kullu (Nirmand)
Turkic Invasions (Late 10th – Early 11th Century)– Alaptgin established rule in Ghazni (c. 962 A.D.).  – Sabuktigin (succeeded 977 A.D.) conflicted with Raja Jai Pal of Shahi Dynasty.  – Mahmud of Ghazni (succeeded 997 A.D.) invaded India. In 1009 A.D., besieged and plundered Nagarkot (Kangra), looting its temple and treasury.  – Nagarkot fort under Ghaznavid control until 1043 A.D., then recaptured by Tomar chief Mahipal of Delhi. Briefly retaken by Ghaznavids, then by Katochs by 1060 A.D..Alaptagin, Subuktgin, Mahmud of Ghazni, Raja Jai Pal (Shahi Dynasty), Mahipal (Tomar chief of Delhi), Katoch rulersGhazni, Nagarkot (Kangra), Punjab, Delhi
Delhi Sultanate Period (13th – 14th Century)– Slave and Khilji dynasties paid little attention to hill states.  – Tughlaq Dynasty: Muhammad bin Tughlaq reportedly invaded Kangra (1337 A.D.), but details are debated.  – Firoz Shah Tughlaq besieged Nagarkot (1365 A.D.) after Raja Rup Chand of Kangra raided plains. Rup Chand surrendered after 6 months. 1,300 Hindu books from temple library reportedly translated to Persian (‘Dalayil-i-Firoz Shahi’). Fort likely not permanently garrisoned by Firoz Shah.  – Nasir-ud-Din (Firoz Shah’s son) took refuge in Nagarkot (until 1389 A.D.).Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Raja Rup Chand of Kangra, Nasir-ud-DinDelhi, Kangra (Nagarkot)
Timur’s Invasion (1398-99 A.D.)– Mongol ruler Timur invaded India, weakening the Delhi Sultanate.  – On return, invaded Shivalik states (1399 A.D.). Stormed forts in Kiarda-dun (Sirmaur). Reached Nurpur (Dhameri).  – Intended to subdue Nagarkot but was deterred by terrain.  – Raja Alam Chand of Hindur (Nalagarh) offered provisions to Timur. Raja Megh Chand ruled Kangra.Timur (Tamerlane), Raja Megh Chand (Kangra), Raja Alam Chand (Hindur)Shivalik hills, Kiarda-dun (Sirmaur), Nurpur (Dhameri), Hindur (Nalagarh), Kangra
Mughal Era – Early Phase (16th Century)– Babur (1526-1530): Captured Malot fort (near Kangra) in 1525 A.D..  – Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): General Khawas Khan sent to subdue Kangra hills. Sikandar Shah Sur (nephew) retreated to Dhameri (Nurpur) and Kangra after the Mughal defeat.  – Akbar (1556-1605): First Mughal to plan Kangra fort conquest. Camped near Nurpur while pursuing Sikandar Sur. Mankot fort surrendered to Akbar (1557 A.D.).  – Akbar started policy of keeping Hill State princes as hostages.  – Raja Jai Chand of Kangra arrested; son Bidhi Chand revolted (1572 A.D.). Hussain Quli Khan’s expedition besieged Kangra but withdrew due to the Mirza revolt. Bhawan temple attacked.  – Todar Mal created imperial demesne from hill states’ lands (66 villages from Kangra, Rihlu from Chamba).  – Hill chiefs’ rebellion (1588-89) led by Bidhi Chand, suppressed by Zain Khan Koka.  – Another revolt (c. 1594-95) suppressed by Sheikh Farid (Murtaza Khan).Babur, Sher Shah Suri, Khawas Khan, Sikandar Shah Sur, Akbar, Raja Jai Chand, Bidhi Chand, Hussain Quli Khan, Raja Birbal, Todar Mal, Zain Khan Koka, Sheikh FaridMalot, Dhameri (Nurpur), Kangra, Mankot, Kotla, Chamba (Rihlu)
Mughal Era – Jahangir & Shah Jahan (Early 17th Century)– Jahangir (1605-1627): Determined to capture Kangra fort.  – 1615: First attempt under Sheikh Farid Murtaza Khan and Suraj Mal of Nurpur failed due to disputes and Murtaza Khan’s death.  – 1617: Second attempt led by Suraj Mal of Nurpur and Muhammad Taqi. Suraj Mal revolted but was defeated and died in Chamba (1619).  – November 1620: Kangra fort captured by Mughals under Rai Raiyan Bikramjit, assisted by Jagat Singh of Nurpur. Hari Chand (Katoch chief) surrendered. Fort garrisoned by Mughals; Nawab Ali Khan first Qiladar. The Katoch family got Rajgir as jagir.  – Jahangir visited Kangra (Jan 1622).  – Shah Jahan (1628-1658): Asad Ullah Khan and Koch Quli Khan were Qiladars. Jagat Singh of Nurpur ruled Chamba for 20 years after Raja Janardhan’s murder (1623). Jagat Singh revolted (1641) but was suppressed; Chamba restored to Prithvi Singh.Jahangir, Sheikh Farid Murtaza Khan, Raja Suraj Mal (Nurpur), Shah Quli Khan Muhammad Taqi, Rai Raiyan Sunder Das, Jagat Singh (Nurpur), Hari Chand (Kangra), Nawab Ali Khan, Shah Jahan, Asad Ullah Khan, Koch Quli Khan, Raja Janardhan (Chamba), Prithvi Singh (Chamba)Kangra Fort, Nurpur, Chamba, Taragarh fort, Rajgir
Mughal Era – Aurangzeb & Decline (Late 17th – Early 18th Century)– Aurangzeb (1658-1707): Mughal Qiladars at Kangra: Sayyid Hussain Khan, Hasan Abdullah Khan Pathan, Nawab Sayyid Khalil Ullah Khan.  – Mughal glory declined; focus shifted to Deccan.  – Raja Chatar Singh of Chamba refused to demolish temples, allied with other hill chiefs and defeated Mughal forces.  – Raja Bhim Chand of Kahlur, provoked by intolerance, allied with Guru Gobind Singh against Mughals.  – Last Mughal Qiladar of Kangra: Nawab Saif Ali Khan (appointed 1740). Mughal authority weakened significantly.Aurangzeb, Sayyid Hussain Khan, Hasan Abdullah Khan Pathan, Nawab Sayyid Khalil Ullah Khan, Raja Chatar Singh (Chamba), Raja Bhim Chand (Kahlur), Guru Gobind Singh, Nawab Saif Ali KhanKangra Fort, Chamba, Kahlur (Bilaspur)
Sikh Misls & Rise of Sansar Chand (Mid-Late 18th Century)– Sikh Misls gained power. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia made Kangra, Nurpur, Chamba tributaries.  – 1775: Jai Singh Kanheya defeated Jassa Singh, captured the Kangra group of states. Kangra Fort remained under Mughal governor Saif Ali Khan.  – 1782: Sansar Chand II of Kangra, with Jai Singh Kanheya, besieged Kangra fort.  – 1783: Fort surrendered by dying Saif Ali Khan, but to Jai Singh Kanheya, not Sansar Chand.  – 1787: Sansar Chand, with other hill leaders, forced Jai Singh Kanheya to cede Kangra fort.  – Sansar Chand became very powerful, subduing Guler, Siba, Jaswan, Datarpur, Kahlur, Mandi. His tyranny led to a coalition against him.Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, Jai Singh Kanheya, Sansar Chand II, Saif Ali KhanKangra, Nurpur, Chamba, Guler, Siba, Jaswan, Datarpur, Kahlur, Mandi
Gurkha Ascendancy & Conflict with Sansar Chand (Late 18th – Early 19th Century)– Gurkhas of Nepal expanded westward, aiming for a kingdom from Nepal to Kashmir. By the end of 18th century, controlled Kumaon, Garhwal, Sirmaur, Shimla Hill States.  – 1804: Amar Singh Thapa intervened in Sirmaur at Raja Karam Parkash’s request, later setting up his own rule.  – Hill states, suffering under Sansar Chand, invited Amar Singh Thapa (1804 A.D.).  – 1806: Gurkhas, joined by hill contingents, defeated Sansar Chand at Mahal Morian (Hamirpur). Sansar Chand took refuge in Kangra fort.  – Gurkhas besieged Kangra fort for four years, devastating the countryside.Gurkhas (Amar Singh Thapa, Bhakti Thapa, Ranzor Singh Thapa), Raja Karam Parkash (Sirmaur), Sansar Chand II, Hill Chiefs coalitionNepal, Kumaon, Garhwal, Sirmaur, Shimla Hill States, Kangra Fort, Mahal Morian (Hamirpur), Arki (Baghal)
Intervention of Maharaja Ranjit Singh & Anglo-Gurkha War (1809 – 1816)– Sansar Chand sought help from Maharaja Ranjit Singh.  – Treaty of Jwalamukhi (July 20, 1809): Sansar Chand ceded Kangra fort and hill states to Ranjit Singh in return for expelling Gurkhas. Desa Singh Majithia appointed Nazim.  – After 1809, Amar Singh Thapa established himself at Arki. Gurkhas captured Nahan, Jythak, Hindur, Jubbal by 1810.  – 1811: Amar Singh Thapa marched into Bushahr, whose Raja fled. Gurkhas controlled territory between Yamuna and Satluj.  – Anglo-Gurkha War (1814-1816): British declared war due to Gurkha expansionism and trade issues. The British offered reinstatement to hill chiefs for aid.  – British forces under Ochterlony and Gillespie. Nalapani fort fell after fierce fighting. Ochterlony captured Nalagarh, Taragarh. Amar Singh Thapa defeated at Malaon.  – Treaty of Sugauli (Dec 1815 / Mar 1816): Gurkhas ceded vast territories to the British, including hill areas from Kali to Satluj. British representative posted in Kathmandu.Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Sansar Chand II, Amar Singh Thapa, British (David Ochterlony, Rollo Gillespie), Bala Bhadra Thapa, Bhakti Thapa, Hill ChiefsKangra Fort, Jwalamukhi, Arki, Nahan, Jythak, Hindur, Jubbal, Bushahr, Nalapani, Malaon, Sugauli
British Paramountcy & Hill States (1815 – 1845)– Shimla Hill States came under British sovereignty.  – Sanads granted to hill chiefs (1815-1819), defining territories and obligations (passage for merchants, begar, road construction, Nazrana).  – British policy focused on retention of territories, handling disputes, succession issues, and ensuring loyalty.  – Some rulers fled to British territory due to fear of Sikhs (e.g., Raja Bir Singh of Nurpur, Raja Balbir Sen of Mandi sought British help).  – Treaty of Amritsar (1809) between British and Ranjit Singh maintained, defining spheres of influence (British south of Satluj, Ranjit Singh north).British (East India Company), Hill Chiefs (Rajas of Bilaspur, Baghal, Sirmaur, Bushahr etc.), Maharaja Ranjit SinghShimla Hill States, Palasi, various principalities receiving Sanads
Anglo-Sikh Wars & Full British Control (1845 – 1857)– First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846):  – Battles of Ferozeshah (Dec 1845), Aliwal (Jan 1846, British victory under Sir Harry Smith), Sobraon (Feb 10, 1846, decisive British victory).  – Treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846): Sikhs ceded Jalandhar Doab and territories south of Satluj. British Resident at Lahore. Kashmir was sold to Gulab Singh.  – Kangra, Nurpur, Guler, Jaswan, Datarpur, Suket, Mandi, Kullu, Lahaul-Spiti came under direct British control. This disappointed hill chiefs.  – Second Anglo-Sikh War: Some Kangra Hill Chiefs revolted against British, supporting Sikhs, but were suppressed and banished.  – 1846-1857: Period of British expansion in Himachal hills.British (Sir Harry Smith, Sir Hugh Gough, Sir Henry Hardinge, Frederick Currie), Sikhs (Lal Singh, Tej Singh, Ranjodh Singh Majithia, Sham Singh Attariwala), Maharaja Duleep Singh, Gulab Singh of Jammu, Hill Chiefs (Shamsher Singh of Guler, Bir Singh of Nurpur, Narain Pal of Kutlehr, Raja of Suket)Ferozeshah, Aliwal, Sobraon, Lahore, Jalandhar Doab, Kangra, Nurpur, Kullu, Mandi, Lahaul-Spiti
Post-1857 & British Raj (1857 – 1947)– Revolt of 1857: Rajas of Nalagarh (Ram Singh), Suket (Ugar Sen), Chamba (Sri Singh) remained loyal to the British, received rewards. Maharshi Devendra Nath Tagore stranded in Shimla.  – End of East India Company’s rule; British Crown took over.  – Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (Nov 1, 1858): Assured Hill Chiefs of protection of their privileges and territories.  – New Sanads issued (1857-1929) dealing with land annexation, titles, postal conventions etc..  – British retained strategic military locations.  – Chamber of Princes (Narendra Mandal) formed (Feb 8, 1921): Consultative body. Chamba, Mandi, Suket, Sirmaur became members. Shimla Hill States represented by elected rulers (e.g., Raja Bhagat Chand of Jubbal, Raja of Baghat).  – Hill rulers generally remained faithful to the British.  – Early 20th century: Rise of movements against British rule and against tyrannical local chiefs.British Crown, Queen Victoria, Hill Chiefs, Maharshi Devendra Nath Tagore, Raja Bhagat Chand (Jubbal), Raja of BaghatShimla, Nalagarh, Suket, Chamba, Mandi, Sirmaur, Jubbal, Baghat
Towards Independence & Integration– Unease among ruling families about their future in Independent India.Ruling families of Princely StatesHimachal Pradesh

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