Ancient Roots and Early Political Landscape of Himachal Pradesh

Ancient Roots and Early Political Landscape of Himachal Pradesh

The landmass that constitutes modern-day Himachal Pradesh has been a cradle of human activity and evolving political structures for millennia. Understanding its ancient roots is essential to appreciate the complex tapestry of its later historical and administrative development. Archaeological findings, mythological accounts, and records of early empires all point to a region that, despite its mountainous terrain, was interconnected and influenced by broader historical currents.

A. Prehistoric and Protohistoric Glimpses

Archaeological explorations across Himachal Pradesh have unearthed significant evidence of early human presence, pushing back the timeline of habitation in these Himalayan valleys.

• Early Human Settlement in Himachal Pradesh:
  Archaeological evidence indicates that human settlement in the region of Himachal Pradesh began approximately two million years ago. Key areas of excavation, such as the Banganga valley in Kangra, the Sirsa and Markanda valleys in the Shivalik foothills, have yielded stone tools like pebbles, choppers, hand axes, and flakes, predominantly made of quartzite. These implements, often found embedded in fan-shaped boulders and gravels, are estimated to be at least 4000 years old, based on typological comparisons with similar tools from peninsular India. The natural vegetation, animal life, abundant river pebbles for tool-making, and readily available river water likely attracted early human populations to these river valleys.
  
• Archaeological Discoveries in Kinnaur:
  The Kinnaur district has revealed a distinct cist burial culture dating to the first millennium BC. Excavations at Lippa and Kanam are particularly noteworthy. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from Kanam suggests the burial there dates between the sixth and fifth centuries BC (based on a date of 2490±70 BP, calibrating to 540±70 cal BC), supported by an OSL date of pottery from Kanam (2.3±0.2 ka). While a date from Lippa (3140±150 BP, calibrating to 1420±170 cal BC) is considered less reliable due to low carbon content, the Kanam dates point to a developed burial culture around the sixth century BC.
  Grave goods from these sites include human bones (four individuals in Lippa Cist III, suggesting secondary burial; a complete male skeleton in Kanam), copper bangles (on both wrists at Kanam), iron tools, ruminant horns, and typical red ware pottery vases. The ceramic types found in Kinnaur show similarities to pottery from Malari in Uttarakhand, Mustang in Nepal, and western Tibet, dating between 1000 BC and AD 200, suggesting a common ceramic tradition across a vast trans-Himalayan region, despite differing burial practices.
  Crucially, Lippa cist III yielded two small, highly tempered, moderately vitrified refractory clay crucibles and glazed steatite beads. Analysis of one bead showed it to be made of synthetic enstatite, produced by heating raw soapstone to high temperatures. The presence of crucibles suggests pyrotechnological skills, possibly for metallurgy or the specialized production of steatite beads, and might indicate the individual buried was a metalsmith. This evidence points to a sophisticated level of technological development in the region during this period. The raw materials for these items, kaolinite and soapstone, could have been sourced locally from Asrang. These findings indicate an integration of the Kinnaur area within a wider Trans-Himalayan burial culture.
  While these cist burials are significant, specific Paleolithic or Neolithic findings from Kinnaur are not extensively detailed in these particular research accounts. However, other sources suggest that Kamru, Sungra, Kothi, and Chitkul in Kinnaur could be rich archaeological sites. The Upper Sutlej Valley, encompassing parts of Kinnaur, was historically known as the Garuda Valley and was a center of the Zhangzhung empire. Furthermore, linguistic evidence points to the archaic nature of Western Pahari languages like Roghi-Kinnauri and Kalpa-Kinnauri (traditionally known as Chamang and Domang), and the broader Lahul-Spiti and Garhwal regions are considered to have been habitats of Neolithic peoples.
  
• Archaeological Discoveries in Lahaul & Spiti:
  The Spiti Valley provides evidence of very early human habitation, primarily through its rich heritage of pre-Buddhist Khasa rock art, with the earliest examples dating back nearly 3,000 years to the Late Bronze Age (c. 1500–800 BCE). More ancient are the non-geometric microliths (lithic tools) discovered in Dzamathang, Spiti Valley. These tools, similar to those found in adjoining Ladakh, Tibet, and Nepal, are assigned to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods, suggesting that the Trans-Himalayan zone may have served as a migration route rather than a barrier for early humans.
  Rock art, including petroglyphs (engravings) and some pictographs (paintings in rock shelters), is abundant in Lahaul-Spiti, particularly in the Spiti villages of Po, Tabo, and Lari. These artworks depict animals such as ibex, wild yak, and snow leopards, alongside hunting scenes, anthropomorphic figures, and various symbols including the Swastik, Stupas, and images of Lord Buddha. This art served as a form of communication, reflecting socio-cultural concepts, rituals, and a blend of Hindu and Buddhist influences, with some elements potentially linked to the pre-Buddhist Bon religion of Zhangzhung.
  Burial sites in Spiti villages like Tashigang, Kibber, Lari, Mane Gogma, Kungri, and Sanglung have yielded Red Ware ceramics. These are mostly handmade, though some wheel-turned examples exist, often decorated with cord impressions or incised lines. An AMS analysis of human bone collagen from a Kibber burial dates it to AD 690-885. Many of these sites have come to light due to ongoing construction, making them part of salvage archaeology efforts.
  In Lahaul, an ancient bronze lota (vessel) discovered in Gandhola in 1857 is of particular significance. It features an intricate etching of a prince in a chariot, believed to be a rare depiction of Prince Siddhartha Gautama before he became the Buddha. Initially dated to the 3rd century CE, some scholars suggest it could be as old as the 1st or 2nd century CE, potentially linking it to the Kushan or even Ashokan period. Other findings at Gandhola include temple fragments and a marble sculpture of a crowned figure, indicating a significant early Buddhist presence in Lahaul, predating the widespread adoption of Buddhism in Tibet. The mountain above Gandhola, Dilbu-Ri (Bell Mountain), is associated with the Buddhist saint Ghantapada, linking Lahaul to Vajrayana traditions.Archaeological evidence in the Lahaul valley also includes Buddhist sculptures of Manjushri, Padmapani, and Maitreya, and rock carvings at sites like Lower Keylong, Kardang, Khangsar, Kolang, and Gondhla, iconographically dated to the 5th-8th century CE or earlier.
  
• Archaeological Discoveries in the Solan Region:
  The Solan region, particularly Nalagarh, has yielded Lower Paleolithic quartzite tools, indicating very early hominin activity in the Shivalik foothills. This area, extending from Pinjore in Haryana to Nalagarh, seems to have been a corridor for early human movement. Evidence of the Indus Valley Civilization (flourishing c. 2250-1750 BC) has also been found in areas like Nalagarh and Pinjore, with discoveries of pottery, tools, and other artifacts, suggesting that small communities linked to this major plains civilization existed in the lower Himalayan reaches. The presence of the Pandava cave on Mount Karol in Solan connects the region to epic traditions, suggesting its significance in ancient narratives. The strategic location of the Solan region at the foothills likely made it a crucial interface between the cultures of the plains and the hills.
  

B. Mythological Connections and Early Inhabitants (Kinnaras, Kiratas, Khasas)

The ancient texts of India are replete with references to various tribes and semi-divine beings inhabiting the Himalayan region, many of whom are associated with the territories that now form Himachal Pradesh.

• The Kinnaras/Kinners:
  The Kinnaur region is deeply intertwined with the mythological Kinnaras (or Kinners). These beings are frequently described in Puranic and epic literature as celestial musicians and choristers, often depicted with a human figure and the head of a horse, or vice versa, and are thus also known as Ashvamukhas (horse-faced). They are considered attendants of Kubera, the god of wealth, and are said to dwell in his paradise on Mount Kailash or in the Himalayas. The Vayu Purana mentions them as inhabitants of the Mahand Mountains , and the Mahabharata also refers to them.
  The etymology of ‘Kinnaur’ itself is believed to be derived from the Kinner or Kanaura community that inhabits the region. This suggests a strong historical or cultural self-identification with these mythical beings, or perhaps an external labeling based on the Puranic lore associated with this mountainous territory. The region has also been known by other names; Tibetans refer to it as ‘Khunu’, and in Leh, it was called ‘Maon’, a name also associated with the Bushahr state.
  A significant mythological connection is the belief that the Pandava brothers, heroes of the Mahabharata, spent a considerable part of their 12-year exile in Kinnaur. The fort at Morang, for instance, is traditionally believed to have been built by them. Such associations with epic heroes have endowed the Kinnaur region with a sacred aura, profoundly influencing its cultural identity and traditions.
  
• The Khasas:
  The Khasas were an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and various Puranas as inhabitants of the Himalayan regions, including areas that are now part of Himachal Pradesh such as Shimla, Sirmaur, and parts of Kullu and Kinnaur. In Kinnaur, some people identify as ‘Khashiya’ and associate themselves with Rajputs, suggesting a historical Khasa presence and integration.
  
• The Kiratas and Dasas:
  The Kiratas are another ancient tribe mentioned in texts, later known as ‘Mavanas’ or ‘Mavies’ in the region across the Jamuna and Satluj rivers. The Dasas (or Dasyus) are considered to have been inhabitants of the Shivalik Hills during the Pre-Vedic period. These groups likely represent some of the earliest strata of population in the Himalayan foothills.
  
• Etymology of Lahaul and Spiti:
  The names ‘Lahaul’ and ‘Spiti’ also have historical and geographical significance. “Spiti” is believed to be derived from “Piti,” meaning “the middle land,” reflecting its geographical position surrounded by high mountain ranges. “Lahaul” has several proposed etymologies: Tibetans referred to it as ‘Garzha’ or ‘Garsa’. It might derive from the Tibetan ‘Lho-Yul’ (country of the south, relative to Tibet) or ‘Lha-Yul’ (country of the gods). The ancient Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang referred to Lahaul as ‘Lo-u-lo’. Ancient Buddhist scriptures also mention a country named Khasa or Hasha to the south of Ladakh and Zangskar, which could possibly be a corruption leading to Garzha (Lahaul). The varied nomenclature reflects the region’s interactions with different cultures, particularly Tibetan and Indic civilizations.
  

C. Influence of Ancient Empires (Mauryan, Kushan, Gupta) on Hill Territories

The strategic location and resources of the Himalayan region did not escape the notice of the great ancient Indian empires, which sought to extend their influence, if not direct rule, over these territories.

• Mauryan Empire (c. 322–185 BCE):
  The founder of the Mauryan Empire, Chandragupta Maurya, is known to have formed an alliance with a Himalayan king named Parvataka before embarking on his empire-building endeavors. This suggests early political interactions between the Gangetic plains and the hill regions. Emperor Ashoka, Chandragupta’s grandson, was a great patron of Buddhism and made significant efforts to spread its teachings. His influence is believed to have extended into the Himalayan regions, including areas that form present-day Himachal Pradesh. There are reports of Ashokan stupas in the Kullu valley, indicating the reach of Buddhist missionary activities during his reign. Kinnaur, too, was likely within the Mauryan sphere of influence, at least indirectly.
  
• Kushan Empire (c. 30–375 CE):
  The Kushan Empire, which stretched from Central Asia into Northern India, also exerted influence over the Himalayan territories. Emperor Kanishka’s domain is known to have included Kashmir and parts of the Inner Himalayas, likely encompassing Kinnaur. The Kushans were significant patrons of Mahayana Buddhism and played a crucial role in its dissemination along the trade routes connecting India with Central Asia and China. Archaeological evidence, such as a Kharoshti inscription of the Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises found by A.H. Francke at Khaltse in Ladakh (near Lahaul), points to Kushan presence or influence in the wider trans-Himalayan region. The discovery of the Gandhola Lota in Lahaul, potentially dating to the Kushan era and depicting Buddhist themes, further supports the idea of flourishing Buddhist art and culture in these remote areas under Kushan influence. The Kushan administration utilized a system of Satraps (governors) for remotely located regions, though specific details for Himalayan territories are scarce.
  
• Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE):
  The Gupta Empire, known for its cultural and scientific advancements, also extended its northern boundaries to the high Himalayas. Samudragupta’s empire is noted to have included territories like Kumaon, Garhwal, and Nepal, suggesting that Kinnaur and other parts of Himachal Pradesh would have fallen within its sphere of influence.
  

The inclusion of these Himalayan territories, even if often peripheral to the core imperial domains, was significant. It facilitated cultural exchange, particularly the spread and consolidation of Buddhism, and maintained trade links that prevented the complete isolation of these mountainous regions. Direct administrative control by these empires over the rugged terrain was likely less intense than in the plains, with influence often exerted through local chieftains and the control of strategic trade routes. The presence of artifacts and inscriptions from these periods serves as tangible proof of these ancient connections.

D. The Era of Thakurs and Ranas: Local Chieftainships

Following the decline of large, centralized empires like the Guptas and later Harsha’s empire in the 7th century AD, the political landscape of the Himalayan region, including present-day Himachal Pradesh, became characterized by the rise of numerous local chieftains known as Thakurs or Ranas. These chieftains ruled over small, often valley-specific territories, creating a mosaic of petty principalities.

• The Thakurai System in Kinnaur:
  In Kinnaur, historical accounts indicate that the area between the Satluj River, its tributaries, and the Baspa River up to Mansarovar was under the rule of Thakkers from very early times. These local lords were often identified by the specific area they controlled, such as the ‘Chini Thakur’ and the ‘Kamru Thakur’.Initially, these Thakurs acknowledged the suzerainty of larger empires like the Mauryan and Gupta. However, with the weakening of central authority, their local power grew.
  The Thakur of Kamru, situated in the strategically important Sangla Valley, eventually emerged as the most powerful among these chieftains. Sometime after the fall of the Kanauj Empire, this Thakur is credited with annexing the territories of other local chiefs by force, thereby laying the foundation of the larger Bushahr state, to which the Kinnaur region subsequently belonged for centuries.
  By the beginning of the fourteenth century, the entire Kinnaur region was reportedly divided into seven parts, locally referred to as ‘Sat Khund’. This division likely represented these smaller Thakurai units before their full consolidation under a dominant Thakur, like that of Kamru, and subsequently into the Bushahr kingdom. This period was characterized by frequent conflicts and shifting alliances among these small hegemonies.
  Traditional village governance in Kinnaur was also deeply influenced by local customs and theocratic elements. Deities played a central role in decision-making, with village councils (panchayats) often consulting them through oracles known as malis or gur. The ‘Char Bhai’ and ‘Khel’ systems are mentioned as traditional governance structures, though specific details of their functioning require further elucidation from historical records. These systems likely represented community-based councils that managed local affairs, possibly in conjunction with or under the authority of the local Thakur.
  
• Thakurs and Nonos in Lahaul & Spiti:
  A similar pattern of local rule by Thakurs and Ranas existed in Lahaul. Notable families included the Ranas of Triloknath, Margraon, and Kardang, and the Thakurs of Barbog, Kolong, and Gondhla. Over time, the Thakurs of Kolong became particularly influential in Lahaul. During the British period, one of these Thakurs was officially designated as the ‘Wizier of Lahaul’, serving as an intermediary for the colonial administration.
  In Spiti, the local hereditary rulers held the title of ‘Nono’. The Nono of Kyuling was later recognized as the hereditary Wizier of Spiti by the British under the Spiti Frontier Regulations of 1883. The administrative and taxation system in Spiti, known as the Khangchen system (based on landholding households paying tax), reflected Tibetan administrative influences.
  

The Thakurai and Nono systems represented a resilient form of local governance well-suited to the mountainous and often isolated valleys of Himachal Pradesh. These local chieftains were crucial for day-to-day administration, revenue collection, and maintaining order, often acting as intermediaries between the local populace and larger, more distant imperial or regional powers. Their authority was typically hereditary and deeply rooted in local customs and loyalties.

E. Early External Influences: Tibetan Kingdoms (e.g., Zhangzhung, Guge) and their Impact

The regions of Lahaul, Spiti, and Kinnaur, due to their geographical proximity to Tibet, experienced significant political and cultural influences from Tibetan kingdoms from early times.

• Zhangzhung Kingdom:
  Before the rise of the Tibetan Empire, the ancient Zhangzhung kingdom is believed to have held sway over parts of the Western Himalayas, including Spiti. The Upper Sutlej Valley, which includes parts of Kinnaur, was known as the Garuda Valley and was a center of the Zhangzhung empire. This kingdom had its own distinct culture and religious practices, primarily Bon. Traces of Bon religious practices and symbols are still found in Spiti and parts of Kinnaur, suggesting a deep-rooted pre-Buddhist religious substratum. Rock art in Spiti also shows elements that are considered pre-Buddhist and possibly linked to Zhangzhung.
  
• Tibetan Empire (7th – 9th Centuries AD):
  The powerful Tibetan Empire, which emerged in the 7th century AD, annexed the Zhangzhung kingdom, thereby bringing regions like Spiti under its direct or indirect control. The administrative system in Spiti, known as the Khangchen system (where major landholding households, or Khangchen, were responsible for paying taxes to the ruler), is considered a reflection of the military and administrative structures of the Tibetan Empire. This period also saw the initial introduction of Buddhism into these areas from Tibet, alongside the existing Bon traditions.
  
• Guge Kingdom (Post-10th Century AD):
  Following the fragmentation of the Tibetan Empire, several smaller kingdoms arose in Western Tibet. Among the most influential was the Guge kingdom, founded around the 10th century AD by descendants of the old Tibetan royal lineage.
  The Guge kingdom extended its influence over Kinnaur, Spiti, and Lahaul. Kinnaur was part of the Guge kingdom during the 10th and 11th centuries, and even after Guge’s decline, its uppermost parts remained under Tibetan influence until the late 17th century. Spiti was also an integral part of Guge during this period.
  The Guge period is particularly significant for the “Second Diffusion of Buddhism” in the Western Himalayas. The Guge King Yeshe-Ö and his successors were devout Buddhists and patrons of the faith. They sponsored the great translator Rinchen Zangpo (Lotsawa Rinpoche), who was born in Kinnaur (Sunam village) , to travel to Kashmir and India to study Buddhist texts and invite Indian masters to Tibet. Rinchen Zangpo is credited with establishing 108 monasteries and temples across Western Tibet and the adjoining Himalayan regions, including famous sites like Tabo Monastery in Spiti (founded 996 AD) , and the Hu-Bu-Lan-Kar gompa in Kalpa, Kinnaur. Kanum in Kinnaur is also described as a complete monastic village dating back to Rinchen Zangpo’s time. The Kadam sect, associated with Atisha (who was invited to Guge by King Yeshe-Ö’s grandnephew), also gained prominence, influencing the monastic traditions.1
  The administrative structure of Guge in its tributary regions like Kinnaur is not detailed extensively in the provided sources, beyond the fact that control was maintained through conquest or tributary status. The kingdom had a monarchical system with its capital at Tsaparang. The influence of Guge was thus pivotal in shaping the religious and cultural landscape of Kinnaur, Lahaul, and Spiti, firmly establishing Mahayana Buddhism which then coexisted and syncretized with older Bon and local folk traditions. This era marked a profound cultural and religious transformation, moving these regions from primarily animistic or Bon-centric beliefs towards organized, institutional Buddhism with strong scholastic and artistic traditions imported from India via Kashmir.
  

II. The Princely States and the Consolidation of Power

The medieval and early modern history of Himachal Pradesh is largely characterized by the rise and dominance of various Rajput princely states. These states, often in conflict or alliance with each other, carved out territories and established administrative systems that shaped the region’s political map until the arrival of the British. Bushahr state, with its deep connections to Kinnaur, was among the most prominent, while other smaller states in the Solan region and the unique entities of Lahaul and Spiti also played significant roles.

A. Bushahr State: Rise and Administration

The Bushahr state, one of the oldest and largest of the Shimla Hill States, has a history steeped in legend and documented accounts of consolidation and regional influence, particularly over the Kinnaur region.

1. Founding Legends and Early Rulers (Pradyumana, Danwar Singh):
   The origins of the Bushahr dynasty are shrouded in a mix of mythology and historical accounts. Popular legends trace its foundation to Pradyumana, the son of Lord Krishna. One version states he came to the region to marry the daughter of Banasur, the local chief of Shonitpur (often identified with Sarahan), and subsequently became the ruler of Bushahr and the Kinnaura region as Banasur had no male heir. Another tale suggests Pradyumana arrived from “Kanchannapur” in the south on a pilgrimage to the Bhimakali temple at Sarahan. The throne being vacant, he was chosen as ruler by the divine will of Goddess Bhimakali, with his elder brother appointed as the royal priest.
   More historical records, such as those cited by C.F. Kennedy, attribute the founding of the Bushahr State to Danwar Singh, a Rajput immigrant from the Deccan, around 1412 AD. However, this date is contested by earlier mentions of Bushahr in the chronicles of Kullu, which record that Shitthal Pal, son of the Kullu Raja, took refuge in Bushahr in the late 7th century AD after Kullu was overrun by Maru Verman of Chamba. This suggests a much earlier existence of Bushahr as a political entity. These varying accounts highlight the common practice of princely states legitimizing their rule through divine or heroic lineages while also pointing to a complex historical origin involving local power consolidation and possible external influences.
   
2. Kamru as Capital and the Kinnaur Heartland:
   The original seat of power for the Bushahr rulers was the strategically located Kamru Fort, situated in the village of Kamru within the Sangla Valley of Kinnaur. This ancient wooden fort, dating back to at least the 15th century, served as an important administrative and strategic center. It notably houses an idol of Kamakhya Devi, believed to have been brought from Guwahati centuries ago. The rulers later shifted their capital, first to Sarahan, renowned for the Bhimakali Temple, and subsequently to Rampur on the banks of the Sutlej River.
   Kinnaur was intrinsically linked to the Bushahr state from its inception. The Thakur of Kamru is credited with laying the foundation of the state by consolidating power over other local chieftains. The initial location of the capital within Kinnaur underscores the region’s foundational role in the Bushahr state’s identity and early power base. The subsequent shifts in capital likely reflected the state’s expansion, evolving religious affiliations (the Bhimakali temple at Sarahan being a major Shakti Peetha), and the growing importance of trade routes that passed through the lower regions, particularly Rampur, which became a significant trade emporium.
   
3. Raja Kehri Singh (17th Century): Treaty with Tibet and Acquisition of Hangrang Valley:
   Raja Kehri Singh, who reigned in the latter half of the 17th century, is regarded as one of Bushahr’s most formidable rulers. He significantly consolidated the state’s power by subduing neighboring Thakurs and Rajas. His reign was marked by crucial diplomatic and military achievements, particularly in relation to Tibet.
   After defeating a Tibetan commander named Guldenchhen in battle, Raja Kehri Singh concluded a significant treaty with Tibet. This treaty established the Kailash range as the boundary between Kinnaur (then part of Bushahr) and Tibet, with the picturesque condition that this boundary would last “till the black crow doesn’t run white, till Mansarovar doesn’t go dry, till whole of snow from above the kailash doesn’t melt”.
   During the Tibetan-Ladakhi-Mughal war of 1681-83 AD, Raja Kehri Singh strategically allied Bushahr with Tibet against Ladakh. This alliance led to a broader agreement with the VI Dalai Lama, ensuring friendly relations and, crucially, tax-free trade for merchants from both Bushahr (including Kinnaur) and Tibet. This trade agreement remained in force until the Sino-Indian border was sealed in 1962 and was of immense economic importance to Kinnauri traders who acted as intermediaries. As a mark of this alliance and in recognition of his support, Raja Kehri Singh received the Hangrang Valley from Tibet as a jagir (land grant). The Lavi Fair, held annually in Rampur, was institutionalized in 1683 following this treaty and became a major emporium for trans-Himalayan trade, symbolizing the economic prosperity derived from these diplomatic successes. Kehri Singh’s diplomatic acumen thus secured Bushahr’s northern frontiers and fostered lucrative trade, profoundly impacting Kinnaur’s economy and regional standing.
   
4. Administration in Kinnaur under Bushahr (Land Revenue, Wazir system):
   The administration of Kinnaur under the Bushahr state was characterized by a degree of local autonomy within the broader state structure. Bushahr’s control over Kinnaur was sometimes described as “loose,” with Kinnaur itself being referred to as ‘Sat Kund,’ implying a division into seven administrative or traditional regions. This suggests that Bushahr may have incorporated or adapted pre-existing local socio-political units, possibly based on valleys or groups of villages, each likely managed by local headmen or Thakurs who reported to the central Bushahr authority.
   The Wazir system was a cornerstone of Bushahr’s administration. Wazirs, such as Tikka Ram and Badri Dass who played crucial roles during the Gurkha invasion, acted as important intermediaries between the Raja and the local populace. They were responsible for revenue collection, maintaining law and order, and general administration. During the reign of Raja Shamsher Singh, the Wazirs became particularly powerful, and the British later intervened in their appointments, indicating the significance of this office.
   The land revenue system in Bushahr, like in other princely states, was generally feudal in nature. The ruler (Raja) was considered the malik-i-ala (superior owner of the land), while the actual cultivators were malik-i-adna (inferior owners). Cultivators had hereditary rights to their land (warisi), but these rights were contingent upon proper cultivation and the regular payment of state dues in cash or kind. The state also extracted begar (forced or unpaid labor) from the peasantry for public works and the needs of the ruling class.
   In Kinnaur, traditional land ownership was predominantly patrilineal, with property passing from father to son. However, women often wielded considerable influence in household and agricultural matters. The practice of fraternal polyandry, where brothers shared a common wife, was prevalent in Kinnaur and was partly an economic strategy to prevent the fragmentation of limited arable landholdings and to ensure that at least one male member was available for long-distance trade journeys while others managed the farm.
   The modern system of land records in Kinnaur, which includes documents like the Shajra Nasb (pedigree table of land ownership), Jamabandi (record of rights), Mutation Register (record of land transfers), and Khasra Girdawari (harvest inspection register), has its roots in the revenue administration systems established during the princely and later British periods. The challenging terrain of Kinnaur likely necessitated a decentralized approach to day-to-day administration, with local headmen and the ‘Sat Kund’ divisions playing a role under the overarching authority of the Bushahr Wazirs and the Raja.
   

B. Other Key Princely States (Brief History and Administration)

The region that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh was historically a mosaic of numerous princely states, often referred to as the Shimla Hill States and Punjab Hill States. Besides Bushahr, several other states, particularly those in the present-day Solan district, and the unique entities of Lahaul and Spiti, had distinct histories and administrative structures.

1. Solan Region States:
   The area now forming Solan district was a conglomerate of several small but historically significant princely states. These states, though often overshadowed by larger neighbors, maintained their identities and played roles in regional power dynamics, especially during the Gurkha invasions and the subsequent British consolidation.
   
   • Baghal (Capital: Arki): Founded by Aje De, a Panwar Rajput from Ujjain, who settled in Sairi village. The capital was later shifted from Damras to Darla, and finally to Arki in 1643 by Rana Sabha Chand. Arki became the Gurkha headquarters during their occupation (1805-1815), and Rana Jagat Singh was exiled to Nalagarh during this period. The British restored the state to him after the Gurkha War. Raja Kishen Chand (mid-19th century) is noted for improving Arki, including rebuilding the bazaar and re-decorating the Diwankhana in the palace with murals. Later, Raja Rajendra Singh introduced constitutional and social reforms, establishing panchayats and schools. Baghal merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1948. The administration, like other hill states, would have involved a darbar (court) and local officials for revenue and justice, though specific details are sparse in the provided snippets.
     
   • Baghat (Capital: Solan): The name is thought to derive from “Bau” or “Bhau” (many) and “ghat” (pass). Founded by Basant Pal or Hari Chand Pal, a Panwar Rajput from Dharnagiri. The capital shifted from Bhoch to Solan after the British established a cantonment there.Rana Mahindar Singh ruled during the Gurkha War and was initially an opponent of the British. After the British victory, Baghat lost five of its eight parganas to Patiala. The state twice lapsed to the British under the Doctrine of Lapse (after Mahindar Singh died heirless in 1839, and again after Bije Singh died heirless in 1849) but was restored, finally to Dalip Singh in 1862 by a sanad. Raja Durga Singh was the last ruler and played a significant role in the integration of princely states into Himachal Pradesh.
     
   • Kunihar: Founded in 1154 AD by Abhoj Deo, who came from Akhnur in Jammu. The rulers, titled Thakur, were known as warriors and often assisted Nalagarh and Bilaspur, mainly against Kullu.The state’s affairs declined under the weak rule of Keso Rai around 1600 AD, leading to territorial losses. Rana Hardeo Singh was the last ruler (1905-1948).
     
   • Kuthar: Founded by Surat Chand from Kishtwar through conquest. It was a tributary to Keonthal at the time of the Gurkha invasion, then ruled by Rana Gopal Chand. The state was restored by the British after the Gurkhas. It merged with Himachal Pradesh in April 1948 and became part of Mahasu district.
     
   • Mangal: Founded by an Attri Rajput from Marwar, who was in the service of the Raja of Kehlur (Bilaspur). The state was named after Mangal Singh, the founder’s son. It was a tributary to Bilaspur and was declared independent after the Gurkha War. It was one of the most inaccessible hill states, located on the bank of the Sutlej River near Bilaspur. On April 15, 1948, Mangal was merged with Arki (Baghal) and became part of Himachal Pradesh.
     
   • Beja: A small state of about 4 square miles on the western slopes of the Kasauli Hills. The ruling family were Tunar Got Rajputs, with Raja Dhol Chand being an early ruler. Beja was a tributary to Bilaspur for a long period but gained independence in 1790.
     
   • Mahlog (Capital: Patta): The ruling family traced its origin to Bir Chand, Raja of Ajudhia. The state was founded in 1183 when rulers near Kalka shifted to the Mahlog area after an attack by Muhammad Ghori. The capital was at Patta, at the base of the Kasauli hills. It was subject to Bilaspur in the late 18th century and occupied by Gurkhas from 1803 to 1815, after which it became a British protectorate. The state was restored to Ajit Chand by the British after the Gurkha war. Mahlog merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1948 and formed part of Solan tehsil of Mahasu District.
     
   • Nalagarh (Hindur): Founded by Ajit Chand, younger brother of Ajay Chand who succeeded to the throne of Kahlur (Bilaspur) state. Raja Alam Chand (reigned during Timur’s invasion in 1398) supported Timur. Raja Ram Chand (16th century) built Ramgarh fort and established Ramshahr as summer capital. Raja Ram Saran Singh (1788-1848) allied with Sansar Chand of Kangra, was weakened by Kahlur and Gurkhas, lost Ramshahr, but was later restored by the British after Ochterlony defeated the Gurkhas near Malaun fort. Raja Surender Singh was the last ruler (1946-1948). Nalagarh merged with PEPSU on July 15, 1948, then became part of Punjab in 1956, and finally merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1966.
     
2. Lahaul & Spiti: Influence of Kullu, Chamba, Ladakh; Sikh and Dogra Rule:
   The remote and rugged regions of Lahaul and Spiti had a distinct political trajectory, often influenced by their more powerful neighbors.
   
   • Early Influences (Pre-17th Century): Lahaul frequently changed hands between the rulers of Ladakh and Kullu. Spiti was ruled by local Sen Kings, with Samudra Sen being one of the earliest known; Rajendra Sen even made Kullu a tributary for a short period. In the 7th century, during Chet Sen’s reign, Spiti was annexed by the Ladakhi king Skyid-Lde-Ni-Ma-Mgon. Under strong Ladakhi rule, Spiti was an integral part of Ladakh, becoming autonomous during periods of Ladakhi weakness but periodically paying tribute. Chamba also exerted influence, particularly over parts of Lahaul like the Pattan Valley.
     
   • Consolidation by Kullu and Chamba (17th Century): In the latter half of the 17th century, with the disintegration of the Ladakh kingdom, Lahaul largely passed into the hands of the Kullu chiefs. Raja Biddhi Singh of Kullu (1672-1688) gained control over upper Lahaul and fixed Thirot as the boundary with Chamba in Lahaul. Around 1700 AD, Raja Man Singh of Kullu (1688-1719) fixed boundaries with Ladakh at Lingti and also gained control over Spiti, forcing it to pay tribute.
     
   • Mongol Invasion (1683): Lahaul was invaded by Mongols (“Qalaaqs” or “Sog-Po”) who were in conflict with Ladakh. They occupied Keylong fort for two years before being defeated.
     
   • Sikh and Dogra Rule (Early to Mid-19th Century): In 1840, Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s Sikh forces subjugated Mandi and Kullu, bringing Lahaul under direct Sikh control. Alexander Cunningham, visiting Lahaul in 1839, found it already under Sikh rule, with Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh’s general and governor of Ladakh, controlling trade between Lahaul and Ladakh. Zorawar Singh’s tax system was reportedly oppressive. Spiti also came under Dogra control (as part of the Sikh Empire) between 1842 and 1846. While Zorawar Singh’s primary campaigns were in Ladakh, Baltistan, and Western Tibet , his administration in Ladakh would have indirectly impacted Lahaul and Spiti through control over trade and regional power dynamics. There is no strong evidence of direct, prolonged Dogra military campaigns within Lahaul or Spiti valleys themselves, but their control over Ladakh implied suzerainty.
     
3. The political history of Lahaul and Spiti is thus characterized by their status as buffer zones, subject to the shifting influences and control of multiple stronger neighbors. This constant flux likely contributed to their unique cultural and administrative resilience, with local systems of governance (Nonos in Spiti, Thakurs in Lahaul) adapting to these overarching powers while often maintaining a degree of internal autonomy. The harsh terrain also made sustained, direct rule by external powers challenging.
   

C. The Gurkha Invasions and British Ascendancy

The early 19th century marked a turbulent period for the hill states of Himachal Pradesh, primarily due to the expansionist ambitions of the Gurkhas of Nepal, followed by the strategic intervention of the British East India Company.

1. Impact on Bushahr and Kinnaur (Flight of Royal Family to Kinnaur):
   Between 1803 and 1815, the Gurkhas, under leaders like Amar Singh Thapa, launched aggressive invasions into the Shimla Hill States, including Bushahr. Following the death of Raja Kehri Singh of Bushahr , the Gurkhas mounted a massive attack. The then minor ruler of Bushahr and his mother, unable to withstand the onslaught, fled to Namru in Kinnaur, seeking refuge. Kinnaur valley effectively served as a sanctuary and a bulwark for the Bushahr state during this period. The Gurkhas, however, succeeded in looting the treasury at Sarahan, the capital, and destroyed valuable state records, causing significant disruption.
   
   The Gurkha invasions also heavily impacted the Solan hill states. Most of the small principalities in this region were subjected to Gurkha attacks between 1803 and 1805. The strategic town of Subathu, for instance, became the first British settlement in the area only after the Gurkhas were eventually defeated and expelled.
   
2. The Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816) and the Treaty of Sugauli (1816):
   The Gurkhas’ expansionist policies eventually brought them into direct conflict with the British East India Company, which had its own strategic and commercial interests in the region. The British, often aided by local hill chiefs who were weary of Gurkha oppression, declared war on Nepal in 1814. After a protracted and hard-fought campaign, the British forces, under commanders like General David Ochterlony, defeated the Gurkha army led by Amar Singh Thapa on April 15, 1815.
   The war officially concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli on March 4, 1816. Under this treaty, Nepal was forced to cede significant territories to the British East India Company, including Kumaon, Garhwal, and areas of the Terai. This treaty marked a decisive shift in the geopolitical landscape of the Himalayas, significantly expanding British influence and curtailing Nepalese power. For the hill states of Himachal, it meant liberation from Gurkha rule but ushered in an era of British paramountcy.
   
3. Establishment of British Paramountcy and Administrative Changes:
   Following the Anglo-Nepalese War, the British became the dominant power in the Shimla Hill States. They restored most of the states to their traditional rulers, but under British overlordship. This new relationship was formalized through the issuance of Sanads (grants or charters) to the rulers, which defined their territories, rights, and obligations to the British government.
   
   • Sanads to States:
     
     • Bushahr: Raja Mahendra Singh of Bushahr was granted a sanad on November 6, 1815. This restored most of his territory, but with some adjustments: the thakurais of Khaneti and Delath were confirmed to Bushahr, while a part of Rawin was transferred to Keonthal, and Kumharsain was constituted as a separate thakurai.
     • Nalagarh (Hindur): A sanad was granted to Raja Ram Saran Singh on October 20, 1815, confirming his rule over Hindur and the Thakurai of Bharauli.
     • Baghat: After periods of lapsing to the British due to lack of direct heirs, the state of Baghat was finally restored to Dalip Singh through a sanad issued in January 1862.
   • Administration in Kinnaur (Chini Tehsil):
     The Kinnaur valley, which had served as a refuge for the Bushahr rulers, continued to be an integral part of the Bushahr state. Administratively, much of present-day Kinnaur came to be known as Chini Tehsil. This tehsil was formally created in 1891 by Tika Raghunath Singh of Bushahr and covered the Kinnaur valley beyond Wangtu. In 1898, the British administration formally took over the Bushahr state, although the Raja remained the nominal head.114 After India’s independence, Chini Tehsil was merged into the then Mahasu district.
     
   • Administration in Lahaul & Spiti under the British:
     
     • Lahaul: From 1846 to 1940, Lahaul was administered as part of the Kullu sub-division, which itself was under the Kangra district. The British largely continued the existing system of administration through local jagirdars or Thakurs. One of these Thakurs was designated as the ‘Wizier of Lahaul’ and vested with judicial and executive powers, while another Thakur was given revenue collection powers. The Assistant Commissioner of Kullu made annual visits. The highest local officer was the Negi, headquartered at Keylong, who also acted as an honorary Magistrate.
     • Spiti: Spiti came under the British East India Company in 1846 as per the Treaty of Amritsar, which followed the Anglo-Sikh War. Due to its remoteness and limited resources, the British did not significantly alter its traditional administrative setup.³³ The Nono of Kyuling was recognized as the hereditary Wizier of Spiti, responsible for revenue collection and most judicial matters, as reaffirmed by the Spiti Frontier Regulations of 1883. For a brief period (1846-1848), Mansukh Das, the Wazir of Bushahr, was entrusted with the local administration of Spiti. From 1849, Spiti came directly under the control of the Assistant Commissioner of Kullu.
     • In 1941, recognizing the administrative inadequacies, Lahaul and Spiti were combined to form a separate sub-tehsil of the Kullu sub-division, with its headquarters at Keylong and a Naib-Tehsildar posted there. This move effectively reduced the powers of the traditional Thakurs and Nonos.
   • Establishment of Cantonments in the Solan Region:
     The British recognized the strategic importance of the Solan hills for military purposes and as health resorts.
     
     • Subathu: Established in May 1815 after the defeat of the Gurkhas. It became the headquarters of the Nasiri Battalion, which initially comprised defeated Gurkha soldiers. Subathu served as an early political and military outpost and was a major stopover on the old road to Shimla.
     • Kasauli: The British were attracted to Kasauli’s thickly wooded hills after establishing Subathu. Land was acquired from the Rana of Baghat in 1842 (for Rs 5,000) and between 1847-1863 to set up a military station and cantonment, which was formally established in 1850.
     • Dagshai: Founded in 1847, it is one of India’s oldest army cantonments. Five villages were gifted by the Maharaja of Patiala to the British for its establishmen.These cantonments became crucial centers of British military and administrative presence in the hills.
   • Construction and Impact of the Hindustan-Tibet Road:
     Initiated in June 1850 by Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, the Hindustan-Tibet Road was an ambitious project aimed at improving connectivity from the Gangetic plains (Kalka) to the Tibetan border, primarily for strategic and trade purposes. Lord Dalhousie himself traveled up to Kalpa (then Chini in Kinnaur) to explore trade possibilities with Tibet.
     The road passed through Kinnaur, with Chini/Kalpa being a significant point. This route was part of the ancient Silk Route’s peripheral circuits, facilitating trade in goods like musk, borax, wool, livestock, and dry fruits between Tibet, Kashmir, Ladakh, Yarkand, and the Indian plains. Rampur Bushahr, located on this road, became a vital trade center. The road significantly boosted trade activities and brought the region into closer contact with the outside world, impacting local economies and societies. The construction itself was a massive undertaking, employing thousands and costing lives, as evidenced by a memorial at Jeori for workers who died during its construction. The road’s strategic importance was re-emphasized during the Sino-Indian War of 1962, leading to further reconstruction.1
     

The British period thus marked a fundamental transformation in the political and administrative landscape of Himachal Pradesh. The Gurkha wars paved the way for British paramountcy, leading to the reorganisation of states, the establishment of new administrative structures, and the development of infrastructure that served British strategic and economic interests, profoundly integrating these remote Himalayan regions into the broader framework of British India.