A Historical Account of Bilaspur District (Formerly Kahlur State)

I. Introduction: The Historical Tapestry of Bilaspur (Kahlur)

A. Geographical Setting and Early Significance

Bilaspur district, nestled in the outer foothills of the Himalayas where they meet the Punjab plains, has long been a region of strategic and cultural importance.¹ The Sutlej River, its principal waterway, has been a defining feature, shaping settlement patterns and the course of its history.¹ The district’s characteristic terrain of hills and valleys, dominated by seven major hill ranges known as dhars, provided natural defensive barriers that influenced its interactions with neighboring territories and larger empires.¹ This geographical disposition fostered a degree of isolation, allowing for the development of distinct local traditions, while simultaneously placing Kahlur (the erstwhile name of Bilaspur) at a crucial juncture, mediating interactions between the hill states and the powers of the plains. The fertile river valleys, particularly along the Sutlej, naturally became centers of population and power, making their control a strategic imperative throughout the region’s history.

B. Etymological Roots: Kahlur and Bilaspur

The state was originally known as Kahlur, a name intrinsically linked to the Kahlur Fort, reportedly constructed by Raja Kahal Chand, the sixth ruler of the Chandel Rajput dynasty that founded the state.² This name signifies the early seat of power and the Chandel dynastic identity, deeply rooted in the region’s martial and political landscape.⁴

The appellation “Bilaspur” emerged later, with the establishment of a new capital town by Raja Dip Chand around 1663 ¹ (some sources suggest 1653 ³). The etymology of “Bilaspur” itself is subject to some debate. One tradition suggests it was named in honor of a fisherwoman named “Bilasa” ⁷, grounding the new capital in local folklore. Another prominent theory posits that the name was originally “Vyaspur,” a tribute to the revered sage Maharishi Vyas, who is believed to have meditated in the area.³ This latter derivation would have imbued the new capital with Puranic sanctity. Despite the official adoption of Bilaspur as the capital’s name, the name “Kahlur” continued to be used by the local populace, attesting to the enduring legacy of the original identity and its historical significance.⁵ This transition in nomenclature likely reflected not merely a geographical shift of the capital but also a potential reorientation in the state’s socio-cultural or political posture under Raja Dip Chand, possibly aimed at associating the new center of power with broader Puranic traditions or local narratives to enhance its prestige and legitimacy, especially during a period of increasing interaction with larger imperial forces.

II. Ancient Foundations and Puranic Echoes

A. Archaeological Glimpses and Early Inhabitants

Direct archaeological evidence for the prehistoric period specifically within the current boundaries of Bilaspur district is not extensively detailed in available records. However, the broader Shivalik region, of which Bilaspur is a part, has yielded Palaeolithic tools, indicating ancient human activity in the general vicinity.¹⁰ The Seer Khad River Basin, which partially falls within Bilaspur, has been a site of such discoveries.¹⁰ Historical accounts suggest that the earliest known inhabitants of the Bilaspur area were the Kunaits.³ The Chandel Rajputs, who formed the ruling dynasty, and the Brahmin families associated with them, are understood to have migrated to the region at a later period.³

A significant challenge to the archaeological exploration of Bilaspur’s ancient past is the submergence of the old Bilaspur town and numerous other historical sites with the creation of the Gobind Sagar Lake following the construction of the Bhakra Dam.¹¹ This event has likely resulted in the irretrievable loss of considerable material evidence that could have provided deeper insights into the region’s antiquity. The tantalizing glimpses of submerged temples visible during periods of low water levels serve as a poignant reminder of this lost heritage.¹³ Consequently, preservation efforts by bodies like the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in the district tend to focus on historical buildings from later periods, mainly the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that were not affected by the submergence.¹⁴

B. Mythological and Puranic Associations

Bilaspur boasts a rich heritage deeply interwoven with Hindu Puranic traditions, which have significantly shaped its cultural and religious identity.

Maharishi Vyas: The most prominent Puranic association is with Maharishi Vyas, the legendary compiler of the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The original name of Bilaspur town is believed to have been Vyaspur, in his honor.³ The Vyas Gufa (Vyas Cave), located between the old and new Bilaspur townships, is revered as the site where the sage undertook penance.⁸ This direct link to such a pivotal figure in Hindu scripture has historically endowed the region with immense sanctity.

Naina Devi Temple: The Naina Devi Temple, a major pilgrimage site in Bilaspur, is recognized as one of the 51 Shakti Peethas. According to Puranic lore, it is the sacred spot where the eyes (Sanskrit: nayana) of Goddess Sati fell after her self-immolation and the subsequent cosmic dance of Lord Shiva.¹⁷ The temple’s establishment is also linked to a local legend involving a Gujjar boy named Naina, whose cow miraculously showered milk upon a stone image of the Goddess.¹⁷ This temple, founded by Raja Bir Chand, the progenitor of the Kahlur state ³, connects Bilaspur to a significant pan-Indian devotional tradition.

Markandeya Temple: Another site of Puranic importance is the Markandeya Temple, associated with Rishi Markandeya. It is believed that the sage performed severe austerities here to propitiate Lord Shiva, who subsequently blessed him with longevity.²¹ A sacred spring, said to have emerged at the site of this divine encounter, continues to be venerated.²¹

These strong Puranic and mythological narratives have been fundamental to Bilaspur’s identity, establishing it as a sacred landscape. Such associations likely played a crucial role in legitimizing the authority of the ruling Chandel dynasty, who could position themselves as custodians of these holy sites. This, in turn, would have attracted pilgrims and fostered a unique religio-cultural ethos that distinguished the state within the wider Himalayan region.

III. The Kahlur State: Emergence and Consolidation of the Chandel Dynasty

A. Founding of the Kahlur State: Raja Bir Chand and Early Rulers

The Kahlur State, later known as Bilaspur, was established around 697 CE by Raja Bir Chand.² He was a scion of the Chandel Rajput dynasty, which traced its lineage to Chanderi in present-day Madhya Pradesh and, more mythically, to Sisupala of the Mahabharata fame.¹ According to dynastic chronicles, Bir Chand was one of the sons of Harihar Chand, a Chandel ruler of Chanderi, who, prompted by a divine vision, abdicated his throne and migrated to the Himalayan foothills with four of his sons to seek new fortunes.³

Following a prophecy by the goddess Jwalamukhi, Bir Chand and his brothers carved out kingdoms for themselves in the hills.³ Bir Chand established his authority in the region of present-day Bilaspur by subjugating the local petty chieftains, known as Thakurs or Ranas.³ He is credited with building the renowned Naina Devi temple, a significant act of religious patronage that likely helped consolidate his rule and legitimize his dynasty.³ His military campaigns led to the subjugation of approximately fifteen neighboring small states or Thakurais, making them tributaries to Kahlur.³ However, his expansionist ambitions were eventually curtailed by the Raja of Sirmour, with whom he concluded a peace treaty that likely demarcated their respective spheres of influence.²⁰

Among the early successors of Bir Chand, Raja Kahal Chand (reigned c. 890-930 CE or 894-902 AD) holds prominence. He is traditionally credited with constructing the formidable Kot Kahlur fort, which subsequently lent its name to the state itself.³ This fort served as the primary seat of power for the Chandel rulers for several centuries. Another notable early ruler was Raja Kahn Chand (reigned c. 1057-1099 AD), who expanded Kahlur’s influence by conquering the territory of Hindur (later Nalagarh). He established his second son, Ajit Chand, as the ruler of this newly acquired region, thereby founding an independent offshoot dynasty of Nalagarh.³

The founding and early consolidation of Kahlur State thus followed a pattern common to many Rajput principalities in the Himalayas, characterized by migration of a martial lineage, conquest of indigenous local rulers, strategic fortification, and the use of religious patronage to solidify authority and foster a sense of legitimacy among the populace.

B. Chronicles of Key Rulers and their Contributions

The Chandel dynasty of Kahlur-Bilaspur produced a succession of rulers who navigated complex political landscapes and left their mark on the state’s history.

• Raja Megh Chand (c. 1220-1251 AD): His reign was marked by internal instability, culminating in a rebellion by his subjects that forced him into exile in Kulu. He was later able to reclaim his throne, reportedly with military assistance from the Sultan of Delhi.³ This episode underscores the internal challenges faced by Kahlur rulers and their occasional dependence on external powers for survival.
• Raja Dip Chand (c. 1653-1665 AD): A pivotal figure, Raja Dip Chand is credited with founding the new capital town of Bilaspur in 1663 (some sources state 1653), strategically shifting the seat of power from the older Kot Kahlur fort.¹ This move likely aimed to consolidate administrative control and perhaps foster trade. He cultivated relations with the Mughal Empire, providing assistance to Emperor Aurangzeb, for which he was rewarded with a khillat (robe of honor) and a sanad (charter) purportedly granting him suzerainty over 22 neighboring hill states.³ This suggests a period of significant political influence for Kahlur under Mughal patronage. His reign, however, ended tragically when he was poisoned, allegedly by the Raja of Kangra, while returning from a Mughal military campaign.³
• Raja Bhim Chand (c. 1665-1692 AD): Son and successor of Dip Chand, Bhim Chand was a formidable warrior king. He successfully reasserted Kahlur’s dominance over many of the 22 hill states that had been under his father’s nominal suzerainty, engaging in conflicts with states like Bashahr, Mandi, and Kotkhai.³ His reign is particularly notable for its complex relationship with Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru. Initial tensions and jealousy over the Guru’s growing influence and regal bearing at Anandpur Sahib (which lay within Kahlur’s territory) led to the Battle of Bhangani in 1686 (or 1688), where the allied forces of Bhim Chand and other hill chiefs were repulsed by the Guru’s forces.²⁷ Subsequently, a reconciliation occurred, and Bhim Chand later allied with Guru Gobind Singh in the Battle of Nadaun (1691) against Mughal forces.²⁷ He abdicated in favor of his son Ajmer Chand towards the end of his life.³
• Raja Mahan Chand (1778-1824 AD): His long reign was fraught with external threats. He faced aggression from Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra, which led him to seek the aid of the Gurkhas of Nepal.³ The Gurkha occupation (1805-1815) proved devastating for Bilaspur and other hill states. Following the Anglo-Nepalese War, Kahlur came under British protection in 1815, formalized by a sanad.³ During this period, Bilaspur also lost the fertile territory of Hathawat to Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire.³
• Raja Kharak Chand (1824-1839 AD): Ascending the throne as a minor, his reign is remembered infamously for extravagance, mismanagement, and personal indulgence.¹⁵ An ill-conceived invasion of Mandi further strained state resources. His early death from smallpox at the age of 26 plunged the state into a succession crisis and further instability.¹⁵
• Raja Jagat Chand (1839-1850 AD): Succeeded Kharak Chand amidst internal turmoil and external pressures.⁴
• Raja Hira Chand (1850-1882 AD): His reign is often described as a “golden age” for Bilaspur.³ Assisted by his capable Wazir Mian Bharji, he undertook significant administrative reorganization and focused on public welfare. He remained loyal to the British during the 1857 uprising. A key reform was the land revenue settlement of 1863, which fixed the state’s share of produce. The territory of Kot Dhar was also restored to Bilaspur in 1867, likely with British consent.³
• Raja Amar Chand (1883-1888 AD): During his brief rule, he initiated further modernization efforts, including opening the state’s first hospital, establishing a Forest Department, reorganizing the state militia, and structuring administrative units into Tehsils and Thanas. He also promoted education by opening a Hindi Pathshala and making Hindi the official language of state work. Notable infrastructure projects included the Rang Mahal Palace and the Bhajwani bridge over the Sutlej.³
• Raja Bijai Chand (1889-1927 AD): His reign began with a period of minority administration under a British-appointed Council. He later faced challenges in implementing reforms due to internal court politics and British interference. A significant development was the first systematic revenue settlement based on the British Indian model, conducted by Mian Amar Singh, who was appointed as Manager by the British. This period saw the construction of a High School and a new State hospital, along with road development, which stabilized state finances. Raja Bijai Chand supported the British during World War I and was honored for his contributions. He also initiated a water supply system for Bilaspur town and the first Forest Settlement. However, the later part of his reign was marred by maladministration attributed to the influence of personal attendants, leading to public discontent. He abdicated in 1927 in favor of his son, Anand Chand.³
• Raja Sir Anand Chand (1927-1948 AD; died 1983): The last ruling Raja of Bilaspur, he was a highly educated and progressive ruler. He implemented extensive administrative, judicial, and social reforms. These included the formal separation of the judiciary from the executive, the codification of laws, the abolition of begar (forced labor) and child marriage, and the promotion of Panchayati Raj institutions. He significantly advanced education by opening numerous schools, including for girls, and establishing an Intermediate College. Healthcare facilities were also expanded. He played a role in the Constituent Assembly of India (1947-1948). After acceding to the Dominion of India on October 12, 1948, he served as the first Chief Commissioner of the newly formed Bilaspur Province/Part C State.

The history of Kahlur’s rulers reflects a consistent engagement with the prevailing political currents of North India. Periods of strong, able leadership often resulted in territorial expansion and internal stability, while weaker reigns or external pressures led to contraction or subjugation. The interactions with larger powers like the Mughals and later the British were pivotal, shaping the state’s administrative structures and its ultimate destiny.

C. Princely Administration, Land Tenure, and Governance

The administrative machinery of Kahlur, in its early phases, likely mirrored the traditional systems prevalent in other Rajput hill states, centered around the Raja and his council of advisors, with the Wazir holding a key position.³ Local administration in conquered territories was often managed through feudatory chiefs or Thakurs, who were gradually brought under more direct control as the state consolidated.

Land revenue formed the backbone of the state’s economy. Traditionally, this was likely collected as a share of the agricultural produce.³ A significant reform occurred during the reign of Raja Hira Chand in 1863, when the state’s share was fixed at one-third of the produce, with provisions for payment partly in cash and partly in kind.³ This indicates a move towards a more standardized and partially monetized revenue system. A more comprehensive and modern revenue settlement, based on the British Indian model, was conducted during the management of Mian Amar Singh in the early 20th century, during Raja Bijai Chand’s reign.³ This would have involved detailed land measurement, classification, and assessment, aiming for a more predictable revenue stream for the state.

Governance saw a marked evolution under Raja Anand Chand (1927-1948). He undertook sweeping reforms to modernize the state’s administration. Key among these was the separation of the judiciary from the executive, a fundamental principle of modern governance. He also initiated the codification of laws, established a formal Secretariat system to replace the older Wazir-centric model, abolished the exploitative system of begar (forced labor), and actively promoted the establishment of Panchayati Raj institutions for local self-governance.³ These reforms signaled a significant departure from purely autocratic rule towards a more structured and, to some extent, representative system of administration, reflecting the changing political climate of India in the decades leading up to independence. This transformation from a traditional feudal structure to a more formalized and eventually modernized system was a gradual process, significantly influenced by the administrative practices in neighboring British India and the progressive vision of rulers like Raja Anand Chand.

IV. Kahlur in the Web of Regional Powers

A. Interactions with Neighboring Hill States (Kangra, Suket, Mandi, Sirmour)

The political landscape of the Punjab Hill States, including Kahlur (Bilaspur), was characterized by a complex and often volatile network of inter-state relations. These interactions were driven by ambitions for territorial expansion, control over resources, and the shifting balance of power in the region.

• Kangra: Kahlur’s relationship with Kangra, a dominant power in the hills, was frequently antagonistic. Early traditions suggest conflict even during Kahlur’s formative period.²⁰ A significant instance of hostility was the alleged poisoning of Kahlur’s Raja Dip Chand by the Raja of Kangra in the mid-17th century.³ Later, during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the aggressive expansionism of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra posed a major threat to Kahlur, compelling Raja Mahan Chand of Bilaspur to seek the intervention of the Gurkhas.³⁰ This highlights Kangra’s recurring role as a formidable rival.
• Suket and Mandi: Both Suket and Mandi, like Kahlur, were Chandravanshi Rajput states, and their histories were often intertwined through conflict and alliance.²⁴ Raja Kalyan Chand of Kahlur (early 17th century) married a Suket princess, yet this matrimonial alliance did not prevent him from invading Suket, where he was ultimately killed.³ This illustrates the often-fragile nature of such marital ties in the face of political ambitions. Raja Bhim Chand of Kahlur (late 17th century) is recorded as having defeated the Rajas of both Mandi and Suket, asserting Kahlur’s military prowess during his reign.³ There were also instances of cooperation; for example, Raja Bhim Chand of Kahlur reportedly assisted Sidh Sen of Mandi in his conflicts against Suket.³⁷ The shared Chandravanshi lineage, while not a guarantor of peace, likely provided a common cultural and political framework for their interactions.
• Sirmour: Kahlur’s founder, Raja Bir Chand, is said to have concluded a peace treaty with the Raja of Sirmour, which established a boundary between the two states.³ This suggests an early attempt to define territorial limits and manage relations with a significant neighboring power. In the 19th century, during the troubled reign of Raja Kharak Chand of Kahlur, Raja Fateh Prakash of Sirmour, who was his brother-in-law, became involved in the internal affairs of Kahlur, indicating complex familial and political interconnections.³⁹

Generally, the hill states engaged in frequent warfare, driven by the desire for territorial control and resources. However, as noted by some accounts, there was also a degree of mutual respect for established rights, partly due to shared Rajput ancestry, common religious beliefs, and intricate networks of matrimonial alliances that often cut across political rivalries.³ Alliances were typically fluid, formed and dissolved based on immediate strategic considerations and the shifting balance of power. Kahlur was an active and significant participant in this dynamic political environment, its fortunes often tied to its ability to navigate these complex inter-state relationships.

B. Engagement with Imperial Powers: Mughals, Sikhs, and the Gurkha Interlude

Kahlur’s strategic location and resources brought it into contact, and often conflict or alliance, with the major imperial powers that held sway over North India.

• Mughal Empire: The nature of Kahlur’s relationship with the Mughal Empire varied over time. Raja Gyan Chand (16th century) is said to have converted to Islam under Mughal influence, possibly due to pressure from the Mughal governor of Sirhind, and even married the governor’s daughter.³ This suggests a period of Mughal assertion. In contrast, Raja Dip Chand (mid-17th century) actively assisted Emperor Aurangzeb in his campaigns and was rewarded with a khillat and a sanad recognizing his suzerainty over 22 other hill states.³ This indicates a phase where Kahlur leveraged its relationship with the Mughals to enhance its regional power. Despite these interactions, some accounts suggest that Bilaspur, unlike many other hill states, never paid regular tribute to the Mughal emperors, implying a degree of sustained autonomy.³ Later, Raja Bhim Chand allied with Guru Gobind Singh in the Battle of Nadaun against Mughal forces, signifying a shift towards resistance.²⁷
• Sikh Gurus and the Sikh Empire: Kahlur had a historically significant and evolving relationship with the Sikh Gurus and the subsequent Sikh Empire. In 1665, Rani Champa of Bilaspur gifted land to Guru Tegh Bahadur, upon which he founded Chakk Nanaki, later renowned as Anandpur Sahib, a major center of Sikhism.¹ However, relations soured under Raja Bhim Chand, whose jealousy of Guru Gobind Singh’s growing influence led to the Battle of Bhangani.²⁷ Despite this initial conflict, Bhim Chand later allied with Guru Gobind Singh against the Mughals at the Battle of Nadaun.²⁷ With the rise of the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the early 19th century, Kahlur, like other hill states, faced immense pressure. Although Bilaspur reportedly did not become a direct tributary in the same way as some other states ³, it did lose the fertile territory of Hathawat to Ranjit Singh.³
• The Gurkha Interlude (c. 1805-1815): The expansionist ambitions of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra led Raja Mahan Chand of Kahlur, along with other threatened hill chiefs, to invite the Gurkhas of Nepal to intervene.²⁰ The Gurkhas crossed the Sutlej in 1805, defeated Sansar Chand, and subsequently overran Kahlur and many other hill states.⁴ This period was marked by widespread devastation and anarchy.³⁰ The Gurkha occupation lasted until their defeat by the British in the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816).³⁰

Kahlur’s interactions with these larger powers were a complex navigation of diplomacy, alliance, resistance, and subjugation. While alliances could offer temporary advantages or protection against regional rivals, they often came with the risk of diminished autonomy or future conflict. The Gurkha intervention, a strategy born of desperation, particularly illustrates how attempts to leverage one external power against another could lead to even greater instability, ultimately paving the way for the emergence of a new paramount power in the region – the British.

V. The British Colonial Era: Suzerainty, Administration, and Transformation

A. Establishment of British Influence and the Sanad of 1815

The conclusion of the Anglo-Gurkha War (1814-1816) marked a pivotal moment in the history of Kahlur (Bilaspur), ushering in the era of British paramountcy. Having been overrun by the Gurkhas, Raja Mahan Chand of Kahlur sought British protection.³ This protection was formalized by a sanad (grant or charter) issued by the British on March 6, 1815.³ This document confirmed Raja Mahan Chand in his ancestral territories located on the left bank of the Sutlej River. However, the sanad also asserted British authority to redefine Kahlur’s political sphere; notably, the claims of Kahlur over the “Bara Thakurain” (twelve lordships) were rejected, and these entities were recognized as independent by the British.³ This act simultaneously offered security to Kahlur from external aggression while firmly establishing British suzerainty, fundamentally altering the state’s sovereign status and integrating it into the broader framework of British imperial control in India.

B. Administrative Framework under the Punjab Hill States Agency

Under British suzerainty, Bilaspur was initially grouped with the Simla Hill States.⁴ Later, as British India’s administrative structures evolved, Bilaspur became part of the Punjab States Agency, established in 1932. In 1936, a more specific administrative grouping, the Punjab Hill States Agency, was carved out, and Bilaspur was included within this entity.¹

The British exercised their paramountcy through Political Agents and Residents, who served as the interface between the princely state and the colonial administration. These officials wielded considerable influence, particularly during the minority rule of a Raja or in instances where the British perceived maladministration or instability within the state.³ For example, during the minority of Raja Bijai Chand and later due to his perceived mismanagement, the British appointed a Council of Administration and subsequently a Manager (Mian Amar Singh, a Punjab Tehsildar) to oversee the state’s affairs.³ This system, while allowing the Rajas to retain their titles and a degree of internal administrative authority, effectively subordinated Kahlur to the strategic and political objectives of the British Empire. The integration into these agency structures meant a standardization of certain administrative practices but also a clear curtailment of the sovereign powers previously enjoyed by the Kahlur rulers.

C. Socio-Economic Developments: Agriculture, Traditional Industries, Trade, and Infrastructure

The British period witnessed notable socio-economic shifts in Bilaspur, driven by administrative reforms and evolving economic conditions.

• Agriculture: Agriculture remained the cornerstone of Bilaspur’s economy, with maize, rice, and wheat being the principal crops.¹ A significant development was the first systematic revenue settlement conducted on the British Indian model by Mian Amar Singh during Raja Bijai Chand’s reign.³ This aimed to create a more standardized and predictable system of land revenue assessment, which was crucial for the colonial administration’s financial interests. Such settlements often involved detailed land surveys, classification, and the fixing of revenue demands, typically in cash, which could have profound long-term impacts on the agrarian economy and peasant indebtedness.
• Traditional Industries and Crafts: Local industries included the extraction of timber and resin from forests, and the manufacture of katha (catechu) from kher trees.³ Gunpowder was also manufactured locally.³ Handloom weaving was a significant activity, producing Khaddar (coarse cotton cloth) and the finer pattu (woolen shawls, sometimes of pashmina).³ The artisans of Bilaspur town were known for crafting silver and gold ornaments, with some pieces featuring distinctive blue and green enamel work.³ The rulers of Bilaspur also patronized the Kangra school of painting, indicating a flourishing artistic tradition.⁴
• Trade: Historically, long-distance trade in Bilaspur was limited, with barter being a common mode of exchange for everyday necessities. The introduction and increasing circulation of British Indian currency (the rupee) during the colonial period gradually monetized the local economy.⁴ A major impetus to trade was the establishment of the annual Nalwari fair in 1889 by W. Goldstein, the British Superintendent of the Shimla Hill States.⁴³ This fair became a vital center for cattle trade, attracting traders and pastoralists from surrounding regions and significantly boosting the local economy.
• Infrastructure: The British period, particularly under the administration of reformist Rajas or British-appointed managers, saw improvements in infrastructure. Raja Amar Chand initiated the construction of the Rang Mahal Palace and the Bhajwani bridge over the Sutlej.³ During Mian Amar Singh’s management under Raja Bijai Chand, new schools, a hospital, and nearly 100 miles of new roads were constructed.³ Raja Anand Chand continued these efforts, further developing roads and public buildings.³ This infrastructure development, while often serving British administrative and strategic needs, also facilitated internal communication and trade.

The British era thus brought a mix of continuity and change to Bilaspur’s socio-economic landscape. While traditional occupations like agriculture and crafts persisted, the introduction of systematic land revenue settlements, a monetized economy, and improved infrastructure gradually integrated Bilaspur more closely into the broader colonial economic system.

D. Education and Social Reforms during the British Period

The British period, particularly the reigns of later Rajas who were influenced by or responding to colonial administrative norms and emerging nationalist ideas, saw notable advancements in education and social reform in Bilaspur.

Raja Amar Chand (1883-1888) took early steps by opening the first Hindi Pathshala (school) in Bilaspur and decreeing Hindi as the official language for state work, a significant move towards vernacular education.³ His successor, Raja Bijai Chand (1888-1927), during whose reign British administrative oversight was prominent, upgraded the local middle school to a high school.³

However, it was under the rule of Raja Anand Chand (1927-1948) that education and social reforms received a major impetus. He significantly expanded the educational infrastructure by establishing nearly 30 new elementary schools and two middle schools. His administration introduced compulsory teaching of the mother tongue and crafts in schools, indicating a progressive educational philosophy. Adult literacy centers were opened, and free books were distributed to encourage learning. The High School at Bilaspur was elevated to an Intermediate College, and the girls’ middle school was upgraded to a High School, marking a significant step towards female education. A Teacher’s Training School and a Janata College were also established during his tenure.³

In the realm of social reform, Raja Anand Chand abolished the exploitative system of begar (forced labor) in 1936 and enacted legislation to abolish child marriage. Furthermore, he introduced the Bilaspur Prohibition Act in 1942.³ These measures reflected a growing awareness of social justice issues and an attempt to modernize the state’s social fabric. While early educational and social initiatives were modest, the reforms under Raja Anand Chand, coinciding with the peak of India’s nationalist movement and evolving British colonial policies, were substantial. They suggest an active engagement with progressive ideas of the time, driven by both local initiative and the broader socio-political currents sweeping across the Indian subcontinent.

VI. The Struggle for Independence: Popular Movements in Bilaspur

A. Early Agitations and Local Resistance

The history of Kahlur (Bilaspur) reveals a recurring pattern of popular discontent against authority, predating the formal Praja Mandal movements. As early as the reign of Raja Megh Chand (c. 1220-1251 AD), the populace exhibited an “insubordinate temper,” leading to rebellions that temporarily forced the ruler into exile.³ This historical precedent of challenging authority laid the groundwork for later agitations.

A more proximate and significant instance of local resistance occurred in 1930, during the minority administration of Raja Anand Chand. This “rising of 1930” was a direct response to unpopular administrative and economic policies, particularly the imposition of new taxes and the hardships caused by the Second Revenue Settlement.³ Zamindars and commoners alike refused to supply free firewood to Settlement Staff and voiced grievances against high taxes, fishing license fees, restrictive forest policies, and alleged misconduct by revenue officials. The prevailing economic slump exacerbated these tensions, with widespread fear among the peasantry about their inability to pay enhanced land revenue. Despite attempts by the British Resident to offer concessions, the agitation escalated into open rebellion, necessitating the intervention of armed police from Punjab to quell the unrest, leading to arrests and the imposition of collective fines on the participating villages.³ This event, though not formally labeled a Praja Mandal movement at the time, clearly demonstrated a strong local capacity for collective action against perceived injustices.

B. The Bilaspur Praja Mandal: Genesis, Leadership, and Key Activities

The formal Praja Mandal movement in Bilaspur emerged in the broader context of the Indian States’ Peoples’ Conference (AISPC), which aimed to coordinate and support popular struggles for civil liberties and responsible government in the princely states. Following the AISPC’s decision in 1939 to encourage the formation of Praja Mandals in various hill states, such organizations began to take root across the region, including in Bilaspur.⁵¹

The Bilaspur State Praja Mandal was formally established in 1945.⁵⁷ Key figures in its formation included Daulat Ram Sankhyan, Narotam Dutt Shastri, and Deviram Updaya, who had been actively involved with the AISPC.⁵⁷ The primary objectives of the Bilaspur Praja Mandal, mirroring those of similar bodies elsewhere, were to agitate for democratic reforms, advocate for economic relief for the peasantry (such as reduction in land revenue), demand the abolition of oppressive practices like begar (forced labor), and secure fundamental civil rights for the people of the state.⁵² Their activities typically involved organizing public meetings, submitting petitions and charters of demands to the ruler, and mobilizing popular support for their cause.

The rise of the Praja Mandal movement presented a direct challenge to the autocratic authority of the princely rulers. In Bilaspur, Raja Anand Chand, who initially harbored ambitions of maintaining Bilaspur as an independent entity separate from the nascent Indian dominion, responded by forming a counter-organization known as the “Swadin Kahlur Dal” (Independent Kahlur Party).⁵⁷ This move was aimed at countering the influence of the AISPC-affiliated Praja Mandal and resisting immediate merger with India. This dynamic highlights the complex political currents of the era, with princely rulers attempting to navigate the pressures of popular nationalist aspirations and the impending end of British paramountcy.

C. Notable Freedom Fighters and their Role in the National Movement

Several individuals from Bilaspur district played a significant role in the freedom struggle, both within the state and in broader nationalist movements.

• Daulat Ram Sankhyan: Born in the village of Panchayatan, Bilaspur, Sankhyan was a prominent leader of the Praja Mandal movement.⁵⁸ He was instrumental in the formation of the Bilaspur Praja Mandal in 1945.⁵⁷ His activism involved agitating against the Raja of Bilaspur for political and social reforms, for which he faced imprisonment multiple times. After India’s independence, he continued his political career, becoming the state president of the Congress party in 1957 and serving as a minister.⁵⁸
• Sada Ram Chandel: Hailing from Bilaspur, Chandel was an early enlistee in the Indian National Army (INA) led by Subhas Chandra Bose.⁵⁹ He actively participated in the armed struggle for India’s independence. He was also associated with the Himachal Pradesh Provisional Government (HPPG), indicating his involvement in the political processes leading to the formation of Himachal Pradesh.⁵⁹
• Narotam Datt Shastri: A key Praja Mandal activist in Bilaspur, Shastri was known for his writings on the state’s administration prior to 1946, suggesting an intellectual contribution to the movement for reform.⁶¹ He was one of the co-founders of the Bilaspur Praja Mandal in 1945.⁵⁷
• Deviram Upadhaya: Another co-founder of the Bilaspur Praja Mandal in 1945, Upadhaya played a role in organizing popular resistance and advocating for reforms within the state.⁵⁷
• Kali Das: Known for organizing a silent protest march in Bilaspur in 1930, likely connected to the broader Civil Disobedience Movement or the local agitations of that year. He also contributed to nationalist newspapers. His activities led to his exile from the state, and he was able to return only after India’s independence in 1947.⁶¹

The Praja Mandal movement in Bilaspur, spearheaded by these and other local leaders, was crucial in mobilizing the populace, challenging the existing feudal order, and aligning the state’s future with the democratic aspirations of independent India. Raja Anand Chand’s initial attempts to maintain an independent Kahlur, through bodies like the “Swadin Kahlur Dal,” reflect the intricate negotiations and often conflicting visions that characterized the integration of princely states into the Indian Union. Ultimately, the popular demand for responsible government and integration, championed by the Praja Mandal, prevailed.

VII. Transition to Modern India: Accession, Statehood, and Merger

A. The Accession of Bilaspur State to India: Role of Raja Anand Chand

The period leading up to India’s independence in 1947 was a time of significant political maneuvering for the princely states, including Bilaspur. Raja Anand Chand, the ruler of Bilaspur, played a direct role in the constitutional processes of the time, serving as a member of the Constituent Assembly of India from 1947 to 1948.³ This participation placed him at the heart of deliberations regarding the future structure of independent India.

Despite his involvement in the Constituent Assembly, Raja Anand Chand initially harbored aspirations of maintaining Bilaspur as an independent entity, or at least a distinct unit, rather than merging with either Punjab or the nascent entity of Himachal Pradesh. To this end, he established an organization called the “Swadin Kahlur Dal” (Independent Kahlur Party) to counter the influence of the All India States’ Peoples’ Conference (AISPC) and the local Bilaspur Praja Mandal, both of which were advocating for integration and responsible government.⁵⁷ However, the overwhelming tide of popular sentiment for integration with India, coupled with the broader political dynamics of the time, led to negotiations. Ultimately, Raja Anand Chand acceded to the Dominion of India on October 12, 1948.¹

B. Bilaspur as a Part C State (1948-1954): Governance, Achievements, and Challenges

Following its accession to India, Bilaspur was initially constituted as a separate province. On January 26, 1950, with the commencement of the Constitution of India, it was designated as a Part C State. Part C states were territories that were administered directly by the Central Government through a Chief Commissioner appointed by the President of India.

Raja Anand Chand himself served as the first Chief Commissioner of Bilaspur from October 1948 to April 1949. He was succeeded by Shrichand Chhabra (April 1949 – November 1953) and then K. S. Himmatsinhji (November 1953 – July 1954).

The primary rationale for granting Bilaspur separate status as a Part C State, rather than immediately merging it with neighboring territories like Himachal Pradesh or Punjab, was the ongoing construction of the monumental Bhakra Dam project.⁶² The Central Government anticipated that the dam’s construction would lead to extensive submergence of land and displacement of a significant population. By administering Bilaspur as a separate unit, the government aimed to manage the complex issues of compensation, resettlement, and rehabilitation of the dam oustees more directly and effectively, without these critical tasks being subsumed under the administration of a larger provincial entity.

The governance of Bilaspur as a Part C State during this period (1948-1954) would have focused on maintaining administrative stability during a period of national transition, overseeing the initial phases of the Bhakra Dam project’s impact, and preparing the groundwork for its eventual integration into a larger administrative unit. Challenges likely included addressing the anxieties and needs of the populace facing displacement, managing the state’s finances, and coordinating with Central Government agencies involved in the dam project. Achievements would have centered on ensuring a smooth transition from princely rule to a new administrative setup under the Indian Union and initiating the process of dealing with the socio-economic ramifications of the Bhakra project.

C. Integration with Himachal Pradesh: Formation of Bilaspur District

The separate status of Bilaspur as a Part C State was a temporary arrangement. On July 1, 1954, Bilaspur State was formally merged with the then Part C State of Himachal Pradesh, following the enactment of “The Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954” by the Indian Parliament. Upon merger, Bilaspur became a district of Himachal Pradesh, adding an area of 106,848 hectares (or approximately 1,167 to 1,173 sq km according to various sources) to the state.

This integration also had implications for the legislative structure of Himachal Pradesh. At the time, Himachal Pradesh had a 36-member Legislative Assembly (elections having been held in 1952). With the merger of Bilaspur, the strength of the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly was increased to 41 members to accommodate representation from the newly integrated territory.⁶²

The journey of Bilaspur from an ancient princely state (Kahlur) through British suzerainty, accession to independent India, a brief period as a centrally administered Part C State, and its final merger into Himachal Pradesh, encapsulates the complex processes of political consolidation and state reorganization that characterized post-independence India. The strategic importance of the Bhakra Dam project played a unique and decisive role in shaping the administrative trajectory of Bilaspur during this transitional phase.

VIII. The Bhakra Dam and Gobind Sagar: A New Paradigm of Development and Displacement

The construction of the Bhakra-Nangal Dam project stands as one of post-independence India’s most ambitious engineering feats, profoundly reshaping the landscape and socio-economic fabric of Bilaspur district.

A. The Genesis and Construction of the Bhakra-Nangal Project

The concept of the Bhakra Dam predates India’s independence, with an initial agreement signed in November 1944 between the Revenue Minister of Punjab, Sir Chhotu Ram, and the Raja of Bilaspur.⁶⁴ The project plan was finalized on January 8, 1945.⁶⁴ Preliminary work commenced in 1946, and the actual construction of the dam began in 1948.¹¹ Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who famously described such large-scale projects as the “Modern Temples of Resurgent India,” poured the first bucket of concrete on November 17, 1955, symbolizing the national importance attributed to the endeavor.¹¹ The dam, a concrete gravity structure on the Sutlej River, was completed by the end of 1963.⁶⁵ Its primary objectives were flood prevention in the Sutlej-Beas valley, irrigation for adjoining states (Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan), and hydroelectric power generation.⁶⁵

B. Submergence of Old Bilaspur: Socio-Economic and Cultural Dislocation

The creation of the Gobind Sagar reservoir, the vast water body formed by the Bhakra Dam, led to the complete submergence of the historic old Bilaspur town.¹¹ Founded by Raja Dip Chand in the 17th century, this town was the capital of the Kahlur princely state and a vibrant center of culture and heritage.¹¹ The waters engulfed palaces like the Rang Mahal and the New Palace, approximately 99 Shikhar-style temples, bustling bazaars, schools, colleges, and residential areas.¹¹ This represented not just an infrastructural loss but the erasure of centuries of accumulated history and cultural identity.

The scale of displacement was immense. Reports indicate that around 371 villages were affected, with 256 of them belonging to the former Bilaspur province.¹² Approximately 10,000 acres of agricultural land and 20,000 acres of forest land were submerged.¹² Over 11,000 families, totaling around 36,000 people, were uprooted from their ancestral homes and lands.⁶⁷ The process of submergence, which began in August 1961, was a slow and painful one for the residents, who witnessed their homes and heritage gradually disappear beneath the rising waters of the Sutlej.¹¹ The emotional trauma and sense of loss experienced by the displaced population were profound, as captured in local poetry and oral histories.¹¹

C. Resettlement and Rehabilitation: Policies, Implementation, and Long-Term Impacts on Oustees

In response to the displacement, a new Bilaspur township was planned and established on higher ground to resettle the affected families.⁶⁷ “The Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Bhakra Dam Oustees (Grant of Land) Scheme 1971” was formally notified, though its provisions were deemed to have come into force retrospectively from 1955 when land grants under executive orders began.⁷¹ This scheme outlined eligibility criteria for oustees (defined as those deprived of house, land, or both due to the project), the maximum limits for land grants based on prior holdings and location (e.g., Old Bilaspur Town residents versus rural oustees), charges for land, and procedures for application and appeal.⁷¹

However, the implementation of these rehabilitation policies has been fraught with challenges and is widely considered to have been flawed. The article by Parmar and Thakur (2019) explicitly states that the Bhakra Dam project displaced thousands of families “without having any proper rehabilitation mechanism in place,” leading to “unplanned and haphazard development in the new Bilaspur township”.⁶⁷ These initial shortcomings have had lasting consequences, with problems persisting for the second and third generations of oustees.⁶⁷

Long-term impacts include:

• Landlessness and Livelihood Disruption: Many oustees lost their primary source of income, agricultural land, and faced difficulties in establishing new livelihoods.⁷³ While cash compensation was provided, its adequacy and utilization for sustainable livelihood generation have been questioned.⁶⁷
• Housing and Settlement Issues: Many displaced persons who settled in the New Bilaspur Township were later declared encroachers due to anomalies in the settlement process, highlighting ongoing issues with land titles and housing security even decades later.²⁵ The Himachal Pradesh government continues to seek special relief from the Central Government for land allocation to Bhakra oustees and other landless individuals in the district, underscoring the unresolved nature of these problems.²⁵
• Socio-Cultural Disarticulation: The forced displacement disrupted established social networks, traditional ways of life, and the cultural fabric of communities.⁶⁷ The loss of ancestral homes, temples, and familiar landscapes contributed to a sense of social pain and emotional distress that has endured across generations.⁷⁰
• Limited Access to New Schemes: The unresolved issues from the initial resettlement have hindered the ability of oustees to benefit from subsequent government schemes related to land regularization and housing, such as the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana.⁶⁷

D. The Gobind Sagar Lake: Ecological and Economic Significance

Despite the profound social costs, the Gobind Sagar Lake, created by the Bhakra Dam, has become a significant ecological and economic entity.

• Water Resource: The reservoir has a massive water storage capacity (9.34 billion cubic meters), playing a critical role in providing irrigation to vast agricultural lands in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, contributing to the Green Revolution.¹¹ It also supplies drinking water and aids in flood control along the Sutlej River.⁶⁴
• Hydropower Generation: The Bhakra Dam houses major power plants that contribute significantly to the regional electricity grid.⁶⁵
• Fisheries: Commercial fishing in Gobind Sagar Lake has developed into an important economic activity, providing livelihoods for many local people.¹¹
• Tourism and Recreation: In recent decades, Gobind Sagar Lake has emerged as a destination for tourism, particularly water sports and, more recently, island tourism development projects.⁷⁴ These initiatives aim to diversify the local economy and create new employment opportunities.
• Ecological Aspects: While large dams invariably have ecological impacts, efforts are being made to promote eco-friendly tourism and manage the lake’s resources sustainably.⁷⁴

The Bhakra Dam project and the creation of Gobind Sagar Lake thus represent a complex legacy for Bilaspur. It is a stark example of how national development imperatives can lead to significant local displacement and socio-cultural disruption. While the dam has brought widespread economic benefits in terms of irrigation and power, the long-term rehabilitation and well-being of the oustee population remain a persistent challenge, highlighting the need for more sensitive and comprehensive approaches to development-induced displacement.

Table 1: Key Forts of Kahlur (Bilaspur) State

Fort Name	Founder/Associated Ruler(s)	Approximate Period of Construction/Significance	Key Features/Historical Notes	Sources
Kot Kahlur	Raja Kahal Chand (builder/expander); Raja Bir Chand (palace-cum-fort)	7th-9th Century onwards	Original capital, stone structure, two storeys, Naina Devi temple within. Still known as Kahlur by locals.	3
Bachhretu Fort	Raja Ratan Chand	c. 1355-1406 AD	Located on Kotdhar, rectangular stone structure, ruins of ~15 compartments, Asht Bhuja temple within.	3
Tiun Fort	Raja Kahn Chand	1142 Vikrami (c. 1085 AD)	On Tiun range, rectangular, once served as a prison for Raja Kharak Chand’s uncle. Two water tanks and granaries.	1
Bahadurpur Fort	Raja Keshab Sein	c. 1620 AD	Highest point in Bilaspur district, built for defense, now in ruins. Surrounded by deodar and banyan trees.	1
Ratanpur Fort	Raja Ratan Chand	c. 1355-1406 AD	(May be confused with Ratanpur Fort in Chhattisgarh by some sources, but Bilaspur HP context points to Ratan Chand) Irregular octagonal star shape, five-storeyed main gate, Shiva (Ratneshwar) temple.	86 (contextual use), 3 (as Bachhretu)
Fatehpur Fort	(Mentioned as on Naina Devi Hill)	Ancient	Also known as “Satgarh” (seven forts), located on Naina Devi hill range.	1
Sariun Fort	(Mentioned on Tiun Range)	Ancient	Located on the eastern part of Tiun range.	1
Baseh Fort	(Mentioned as one of seven forts)	Ancient	One of the seven ancient fortresses.	1

Table 2: Prominent Freedom Fighters Associated with Bilaspur District

Name	Village/Area (if known)	Key Activities/Affiliations	Period of Activity	Sources
Daulat Ram Sankhyan	Panchayatan, Bilaspur	Co-founder of Bilaspur Praja Mandal (1945), agitation against Raja, multiple imprisonments.	1940s	57
Sada Ram Chandel	Bilaspur	Joined Indian National Army (INA), active in freedom struggle, member of HPPG.	WWII era, 1940s	59
Narotam Datt Shastri	Bilaspur	Praja Mandal activist, writer on state administration, co-founder of Bilaspur Praja Mandal.	1940s	57
Deviram Updaya	Bilaspur	Co-founder of Bilaspur Praja Mandal.	1945	57
Kali Das	Bilaspur	Organized silent protest march (1930), contributed to nationalist newspapers, exiled.	1930s	61

IX. Enduring Heritage: Culture, Religion, and Landmarks of Bilaspur

A. Prominent Temples and Deities

Bilaspur, often referred to as “Vyaspur” in ancient texts, is a land steeped in religious tradition, with numerous temples and deities forming the core of its cultural identity.

• Naina Devi Temple: Perhaps the most renowned shrine in Bilaspur, the Naina Devi Temple is perched atop a hill and is one of the 51 Shakti Peethas, sacred sites where parts of Goddess Sati’s body are believed to have fallen.¹⁷ Legend holds that Sati’s eyes (nayana) fell here, hence the name. The temple’s founding is also attributed to Raja Bir Chand, the founder of the Kahlur state, and is associated with a local legend of a Gujjar boy named Naina whose cow miraculously offered milk to a stone image of the Goddess.³ An ancient Peepal tree within its complex adds to its sanctity.¹⁸
• Vyas Gufa and Temple: The Vyas Gufa (cave) is intrinsically linked to the sage Maharishi Vyas, the legendary composer of the epic Mahabharata. It is believed that Vyas Rishi meditated here, and the original name of Bilaspur, Vyaspur, is derived from him.⁸ This site remains a significant place of pilgrimage.
• Markandeya Temple: This temple is dedicated to Rishi Markandeya, who is said to have performed severe penance here to Lord Shiva and was granted the boon of long life.²¹ A sacred spring, believed to have emerged at the spot of Shiva’s blessing, is a key feature of the temple complex.²¹
• Gopal Ji Temple: Dedicated to Lord Krishna, the Shri Gopal Ji Temple was established in the early 20th century and served as the chapel of the ruling Chandel dynasty.³ The original temple in the old Bilaspur town was submerged by the Gobind Sagar lake, and a new temple was subsequently constructed.³
• Baba Nahar Singh Temple, Dholra: Baba Nahar Singh, also known by local epithets such as ‘Bajia’, ‘Peepal Wala’, and ‘Dalian Wala’, is a highly revered local deity (devta).²³ His worship is believed to have been introduced to Bilaspur from Kullu when a Kullu princess married Raja Dip Chand of Bilaspur. His principal shrine is located at Dholra.²³
• Other Local Deities: The religious landscape of Bilaspur is rich with numerous other local deities. These include Deomati, a deified Rani of ancient times who was particularly venerated by the Chandel royal family, with her temple at Sakirthin being a site for family rituals.³ Gugapir (Guga), whose shrines are found throughout the region, is worshipped for protection against snakebites, with a significant annual fair held at Geharwin.³ Narsing Bir is another deity worshipped by both men and women, and Lakhadata is honored with wrestling matches.³ Dewat Siddh, whose shrine is near Chakmoh, is represented by two stones bearing the impress of human feet.³ Additionally, village Sidhs, often found under Peepal trees, form part of the local pantheon.³ This widespread worship of local and Puranic deities underscores the deep religious faith that permeates the socio-cultural life of the district.⁷⁹

B. Historical Forts: Sentinels of Kahlur’s Past

The strategic landscape of Kahlur (Bilaspur) is dotted with historical forts, remnants of its martial past and the rule of the Chandel dynasty. These fortifications played crucial roles in defense, administration, and asserting regional dominance.

• Kot Kahlur Fort: This is arguably the most significant fort, having lent its name to the state itself. Built by Raja Kahal Chand (though some traditions associate its origins as a palace-cum-fort with the founder Raja Bir Chand), it served as the original seat of power for the Chandel rulers for centuries before the capital was shifted to Bilaspur town.³ Located on Naina Devi Hill, the fort is a square stone structure, historically featuring two storeys and window-like openings for defense. A small temple dedicated to Naina Devi is also situated within its precincts.⁵ Though now in ruins, it remains a potent symbol of Kahlur’s ancient lineage.
• Bachhretu Fort: Constructed by Raja Ratan Chand (reigned 1355-1406 AD), this fort is situated on the Kotdhar range.³ The rectangular stone structure, now in ruins, once contained numerous compartments and a small temple housing busts of Goddess Asht Bhuja (eight-armed) and other deities.⁵
• Tiun Fort: Attributed to Raja Kahn Chand (around 1142 Vikrami, c. 1085 AD), the Tiun Fort stands atop the Tiun range.¹ This rectangular fort once served as a prison, notably for an uncle of Raja Kharak Chand, and contained water tanks and granaries, indicating its importance as a stronghold.⁵
• Bahadurpur Fort: Built by Raja Keshab Sein around 1620 AD, this fort occupies the highest point in Bilaspur district on the Bahadurpur hill.¹ Its strategic location suggests its role in regional defense. Today, it lies in ruins but is surrounded by deodar and banyan trees.⁸⁵
• Ratanpur Fort: While some sources ⁸⁶ attribute a Ratanpur Fort to the Kalchuri dynasty in Chhattisgarh, historical records of Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh, also mention a Ratanpur Fort built by Raja Ratan Chand (1355-1406 AD).⁵ This fort is described as having an irregular octagonal star shape with a five-storeyed main gate and a temple dedicated to Ratneshwar (Shiva).⁵ Care must be taken to distinguish these two similarly named forts in historical discussions.
• Other Forts: The region also housed other smaller fortresses, including Fatehpur Fort (also known as Satgarh, or “seven forts”) on the Naina Devi hill range, Sariun Fort on the Tiun range, and Baseh Fort.¹ The Chanjiar (or Jhanjiar) fort ruins are also noted.¹

The presence of these numerous forts across the Kahlur state underscores its historically turbulent past and the continuous need for defense and consolidation of power by its Chandel rulers. These structures, though many are now dilapidated, are invaluable archaeological and historical assets, offering insights into past military architecture, strategic considerations, and the socio-political conditions of their times.

C. Folk Traditions, Fairs, Arts, and Crafts

Bilaspur possesses a vibrant cultural tapestry woven from its unique folk traditions, lively fairs, and distinct artistic expressions, reflecting the heritage of the Kahlur state.

• Folk Traditions and Fairs:The Nalwari Fair, an annual cattle fair initiated in March/April 1889 by W. Goldstein, the then Superintendent of Shimla Hill States, evolved into a significant socio-economic event.43 Originally conceived to improve cattle breeds, it became a major trading occasion for livestock, attracting participants from Bilaspur, Nalagarh, and neighboring Punjab, and also incorporating cultural festivities and wrestling competitions.49Religious fairs hold a prominent place, such as the Naina Devi fairs held during Navratras, the Gugapir fair at Geharwin (associated with protection from snakebites), and the Jhanda fair at Boler village, commemorating a deified local figure.3 The Sair festival, celebrated on the first day of Asauj (September-October), marked the end of the rainy season and the harvest, involving offerings to household gods and communal feasting.3 These fairs served not only as religious observances but also as important social gatherings and commercial hubs.
• Arts and Crafts:Bilaspur developed a distinct tradition in Pahari miniature painting, with its rulers patronizing artists of the Kangra Kalam (school).4 A miniature painting depicting Raja Devi Chand of Bilaspur (circa 18th century) is one such example of this patronage.44In handicrafts, handloom weaving was prevalent, with Khaddar (coarse cotton cloth) being commonly produced for daily wear, and finer pattu (woolen shawls, sometimes of pashmina) also being woven, some of good quality.3Ornament making was a notable craft in Bilaspur town. Silver ornaments, including rings, necklaces, and head/ear adornments, were often decorated with distinctive blue and green enamel work. Gold ornaments, particularly for the nose (bulak, nuth) and ears (balis, nantis), were also crafted.3Women traditionally engaged in plaiting mats from rice straw (manjri) and making quilts stuffed with old clothes (khind) during winter.3
• Social Customs and Language:Detailed social customs surrounded life-cycle events such as birth (with gontrals or birth feasts for boys), betrothal (orthodox barni and informal sagai or sota), marriage (with various forms like jhajra, gadar, and formal biah, and prohibitions based on gotra), and death rituals (Kiria Karm).3 Polygamy was permitted, and divorce was possible under the rit system for informal marriages.3The staple diet consisted of maize and rice, with wheat also being important. Traditional attire included the kurta and dhoti for men, and kurti and suthan (a type of trouser) for women, though Punjabi styles were gaining popularity during the period documented.3The primary language was Kahluri or Bilaspuri, a Western Pahari dialect with regional variations, showing influences from neighboring areas like Mandi.3

These traditions, fairs, and crafts reflect a society deeply connected to its agricultural cycles, religious beliefs, and local artistic skills. While influenced by broader regional trends, Bilaspur maintained unique cultural expressions that contributed to its distinct identity.

Table 3: Socio-Economic Impact of the Bhakra Dam on Bilaspur District

Aspect of Impact	Details	Sources
Displacement & Submergence	Old Bilaspur town and 371 villages (256 from former Bilaspur province) submerged. Over 11,000 families (approx. 36,000 people) displaced.	11
Land Loss	Approx. 10,000 acres of agricultural land and 20,000 acres of forest land submerged.	12
Cultural Heritage Lost	Historic capital, palaces (Rang Mahal, New Palace), around 99 Shikhar-style temples, bazaars, and traditional ways of life submerged.	11
Resettlement & Rehabilitation	New Bilaspur Township established. Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Bhakra Dam Oustees (Grant of Land) Scheme 1971 implemented (retrospectively from 1955).	67
Flaws in Rehabilitation Policy	Lack of proper initial rehabilitation mechanism led to unplanned, haphazard development of New Bilaspur. Persistent problems for oustees and authorities, limiting access to benefits of newer schemes (e.g., PMAY, regularization).	67
Long-Term Socio-Economic Issues	Ongoing land and housing security issues for oustees (many declared encroachers). Continued need for government intervention for land allocation. Impaired social and cultural fabric, emotional distress across generations.	25
Economic Benefits of Gobind Sagar	Crucial for irrigation (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan), hydropower generation, flood control. Supports commercial fishing, providing local livelihoods. Becoming a hub for water sports and island tourism.	11
Emotional Impact	Profound grief and sense of loss among displaced populations, captured in local poetry and oral histories.	11

X. Conclusion: Bilaspur’s Journey Through Time and its Contemporary Relevance

The historical trajectory of Bilaspur, from its ancient origins as the Kahlur state to its present-day identity as a district of Himachal Pradesh, is a compelling narrative of resilience, adaptation, and transformation. Founded by the Chandel Rajputs, Kahlur carved out a distinct political and cultural space in the complex mosaic of the Punjab Hill States. Its rulers, through centuries of conflict, alliance-building, and administrative endeavors, navigated the shifting tides of regional power dynamics and the rise and fall of larger empires, including the Mughals and the Sikhs.

The advent of British suzerainty in the 19th century brought about significant administrative and socio-economic changes, gradually integrating Bilaspur into the broader colonial framework. This era also witnessed the stirrings of popular political consciousness, culminating in the Praja Mandal movement, which, despite initial resistance from the princely ruler, ultimately aligned Bilaspur with the aspirations of an independent India.

The post-independence period was dominated by a monumental event: the construction of the Bhakra Dam. While a symbol of national development and progress, the dam led to the tragic submergence of the historic old Bilaspur town and the vast Gobind Sagar Lake, causing profound displacement and socio-cultural dislocation for thousands of families. The challenges of resettlement and rehabilitation have cast a long shadow, with repercussions felt across generations. Yet, the Gobind Sagar Lake has also ushered in new economic opportunities, particularly in fisheries and, more recently, tourism.

Today, Bilaspur stands as a region where the echoes of its princely past, the sanctity of its ancient temples and Puranic legends, and the enduring impact of the Bhakra Dam coexist. The forts that once guarded its territories, though many in ruins, speak of a martial heritage. The temples continue to draw devotees, preserving age-old religious traditions. The local arts, crafts, and fairs, though evolving, retain a distinct cultural flavor.

Bilaspur’s history is a microcosm of the broader historical processes that have shaped the Western Himalayas. It is a story of the interplay between local agency and external forces, of the endurance of cultural identity in the face of political and economic upheavals, and of the complex, often painful, trade-offs involved in the pursuit of modern development. Understanding this multifaceted past is crucial not only for appreciating the region’s unique heritage but also for informing its contemporary socio-economic trajectory and addressing the enduring legacies of its transformative historical junctures. The story of Bilaspur offers valuable lessons in regional identity, cultural resilience, and the profound human and environmental considerations that must accompany large-scale development initiatives.